Economic Development Land Tenure Systems

  Land tenure can be defined as the traditional or legal rights which individuals and groups have to land and the behavior characteristics which directly result from these rights. The above definition denotes social relationships manifested in the property rights which individuals and groups have to the land. Land tenure is a crucial factor in the operation of rural land markets, influencing the pace and direction of agricultural development. Since land tenure systems govern access to the means of production in agriculture, they have also been an intensely political subject in rural societies.The first indication of tenure considerations is found among certain preliterate or primitive societies. Among these groups the appropriation of land has not assumed importance in and of itself and the land is viewed as free in total. But in some societies which have progressed no further than a hunting and fishing economy, exclusive claims sometimes are made on certain parcels of land.Since c olonial times, the dominant belief has been that individual tenure is more progressive, modern, efficient, and better for economic growth than indigenous communal tenure. The arguments in favor of labeling claimed that customary tenure is insecure for the small farmer and provides no incentive for land improvements, that it prevents land from being used as collateral for credit and that it prevents the transfer of land from inefficient users to efficient ones. They expected that indigenous customary tenure would wither, but it has proved surprisingly resilient and adaptable, and has coexisted with modern tenure. The most effective form of policy intervention would be governmental guidance, so that customary tenure systems evolve and operate more effectively.Some studies argue that tenure insecurity is correlated negatively with the quality of resource management. Over usage and degradation of natural resources, such as deforestation and soil erosion, are often characterized because of incomplete, inconsistent property rights, as the costs are borne by society as a whole, whereas benefits accrue to individuals. The relationship between customary tenure and land degradation indicates that customary tenure is partly responsible for land degradation. However the behavior that leads to land degradation by smallholder farmers under customary tenure cannot be linked to their lack of tenure security under customary tenure. Rather it is linked to other reasons such as lack of knowledge of conservation practices, use of traditional agricultural production practices that are not sustainable, and lack of inputs such as labor. In this regard, small farmers need extension methods that focus on relevant technologies that promote sustainable agricultural production. (Lynn Smith, 1953)The concept of land reform is itself a controversial and semantically intriguing topic. Its narrowest and traditional meaning confines it to land distribution. A broader view includes in it other related changes in agricultural institutions, such as credit, taxation, rents, cooperatives, etc. It can also be interperated that these reforms are practically synonymous with all agricultural improvement measures — better seeds, price policies, irrigation, research, mechanization, etc.The Land Tenure reforms to be found in any country appear to a great extent to be the function of government. They are closely related to the social and economic well-being of the people. The latter fact sets the stage for the discussion in this chapter. Its concern is the major forms or systems of land tenure and the distinct patterns of social and economic relationships characteristic of each. By way of illustration they point out, among other examples, that individualism and individual initiative are usually more developed in a community of individual farm-owners on small holdings than in a community where one or a few men own all the land and the workers are serfs, laborers, or non-managi ng tenants of one kind or another.The extent to which the ownership and control of the land is concentrated in a few hands or widely distributed among those who live from farming is probably the most important single determinant of the welfare of the people on the land. Throughout the world wherever there is a widespread distribution of land ownership and control.The implication of intense pressure of farm population on agricultural land inevitably results in a farm-tenure situation that is unsatisfactory from the point of view of working farm people. This is so because pressure of population on land drives down the marginal productivity of labor and the real return to labor as a factor of production. If farm land-tenure reforms are not accompanied by policies to reduce excessive pressure of farm population on agricultural land, such reforms are likely to be of little or no avail. Fortunately, the two recent programs to assist depressed rural areas to some degree reflect an awarenes s of this principle.The term that is basic to land tenure theory and which helps to explain the usefulness of the interdisciplinary approach is distribution. According to economic theory, laying aside all qualifying statements for the sake of simplicity, the impersonal market distributes economic rewards according to merit. However, is too narrow a concept to explain fully the distribution principle even in a † free † market. (Alvin L. Bertrand, Floyd L. Corty 1962)The reform or liberal position on the land question thus far had been to make the public-land system function in a democratic way by assuring the small man the right to acquire a piece of the national domain. Limitations were put in the Preemption, the Graduation, the Homestead Acts and their variations to make certain that only the small man could take advantage of them until the issue of the patent, but beyond that they had no effect. All such measures were therefore used by large interests acting through fa ke buyers to acquire lands they could not legally acquire otherwise.Timber land in Wisconsin, Minnesota, California, and Washington, grazing lands in Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, and Idaho, wheat lands in Kansas, Nebraska, North and South Dakota passed into the hands of great lumber companies, cattle companies, and bonanza farm groups under laws that were designed to prevent large-scale accumulation. The unwillingness of Congress to experiment with restrictions on alienation made inevitable the concentration of ownership which grieved western agrarians. (Alvin L. Bertrand, Floyd L. Corty, 1962)Evans, Greeley, George, and other radicals had failed to carry the mass of land reformers with them on the question of alienability. Americans found it easy to be radical or to favor reform when to do so did not impose any self limitation, but few were attracted to any idea that might restrict their right to accumulate property or to sell and gain the unearned increment.The reforms which were b eing adopted at this late time were both ineffective and to some extent unwise. Since the desirable size for land-use units was increasing as population moved into the arid and semi-arid regions, the 320 acre limitation on the amount of government land persons could acquire compelled either evasion and abuse of the laws to acquire adequately sized units or the establishment of small grain farms in areas unsuited to cultivation. This pattern of evasion and abuse of the land laws and the establishment of small grain farms in areas better planned by nature for grazing carried well into the twentieth century. Not until 1934 were comprehensive and far-reaching reforms initiated to produce a desirable and constructive plan of land use.The preponderant, almost the universal view of Americans until near the end of the nineteenth century was that the government should get out of the land business as rapidly as possible by selling or giving to settlers, donating for worthy purposes and ceding the lands to the states which should in turn pass them swiftly into private hands. No matter how badly owners abused their holdings through reckless cultivation, destructive and wasteful cutting of the timber, prodigal and careless mining for coal and drilling for oil, few questioned their right to subject their property to any form of use or abuse.An extensive part of the fertile coastal plain and piedmont of the South and of the hill-farming area of the northeast could be cultivated in such a way as to reduce the land to barren, gullied, and eroded tracts no longer able to produce crops, to support families, and to carry their share of community costs, but few denied the right of the owners to do as they wished with their property or, more fundamentally, questioned the system of land distribution that seemed to invite such practices.The shore line of the Atlantic, of bays and inlets, of inland lakes all near congested urban areas could be monopolized by a wealthy few, and still t here were few complaints. Rich landlords, speculators, and corporations could buy unlimited amounts of land from the United States, or purchase from other owners who had acquired tracts from the state or federal government and keep their holdings from development for years, thereby blighting whole areas, delaying the introduction of schools and roads and doing immeasurable harm to neighboring residents.ReferencesAlvin L. Bertrand, Floyd L. Corty (1962) Rural Land Tenure in the United States: A Socio-Economic Approach to Problems, Programs, and Trends. Southwest Land Tenure Research Committee   Louisiana State University Press. Place of Publication: Baton RougeAlvin L. Bertrand, † The Social System as a Conceptual and Analytical Device in the Study ofLand Tenure,† Land Tenure Workshop Report, Chap. VII.Lynn Smith, The Sociology of Rural Life (3d ed.; New York: Harper & Bros., 1953), 274.Rawls John ( 1971) The Theory of Justice. Belknap Press.Rawls J (2001) Justice as Fa irness: A Restatement. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Roth Michael 2002) Integrating Land Issues and Land Policy with Poverty Reduction andRoland R. Renne, Land Economics ( New York: Harper & Bros., 1947), 429.William H. Nicholls, † Southern Traditions and Regional Economic Progress,† SouthernEconomic Journal, Vol. 26 ( January, 1960), 187-98; id., Southern Traditions and Regional Economic Progress ( Chapel Hill, N. C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1960).

Romeo and Juliet Film and Text Analysis

Phonology What is phonology? Phonology is the study of the sound system of languages. It is a huge area of language theory and it is difficult to do more on a general language course than have an outline knowledge of what it includes. In an exam, you may be asked to comment on a text that you are seeing for the first time in terms of various language descriptions, of which phonology may be one. At one extreme, phonology is concerned with anatomy and physiology – the organs of speech and how we learn to use them. At another extreme, phonology shades into socio-linguistics as we consider social attitudes to features of sound such as accent and intonation. And part of the subject is concerned with finding objective standard ways of recording speech, and representing this symbolically. For some kinds of study – perhaps a language investigation into the phonological development of young children or regional variations in accent, you will need to use phonetic transcription to be credible. But this is not necessary in all kinds of study – in an exam, you may be concerned with stylistic effects of sound in advertising or literature, such as assonance, rhyme or onomatopoeia – and you do not need to use special phonetic symbols to do this. The physics and physiology of speech Man is distinguished from the other primates by having the apparatus to make the sounds of speech. Of course most of us learn to speak without ever knowing much about these organs, save in a vague and general sense – so that we know how a cold or sore throat alters our own performance. Language scientists have a very detailed understanding of how the human body produces the sounds of speech. Leaving to one side the vast subject of how we choose particular utterances and identify the sounds we need, we can think rather simply of how we use our lungs to breathe out air, produce vibrations in the larynx and then use our tongue, teeth and lips to modify the sounds. The diagram below shows some of the more important speech organs. Phonology This kind of diagram helps us to understand what we observe in others but is less useful in understanding our own speech. Scientists can now place small cameras into the mouths of experimental subjects, and observe some of the physical movements that accompany speech. But most of us move our vocal organs by reflexes or a sense of the sound we want to produce, and are not likely to benefit from watching movement in the vocal fold. The diagram is a simplified cross-section through the human head – which we could not see in reality in a living speaker, though a simulation might be instructive. But we do observe some external signs of speech sounds apart from what we hear. A few people have the ability to interpret most of a speaker’s utterances from lip-reading. But many more have a sense of when the lip-movement does or does not correspond to what we hear – we notice this when we watch a feature film with dubbed dialogue, or a TV broadcast where the sound is not synchronized with what we see. The diagram can also prove useful in conjunction with descriptions of sounds – for example indicating where the airflow is constricted to produce fricatives, whether on the palate, the alveolar ridge, the teeth or the teeth and lips together. Speech therapists have a very detailed working knowledge of the physiology of human speech, and of exercises and remedies to overcome difficulties some of us encounter in speaking, where these have physical causes. An understanding of the anatomy is also useful to various kinds of expert who train people to use their voices in special or unusual ways. These would include singing teachers and voice coaches for actors, as well as the even more specialized coaches who train actors to produce the speech sounds of hitherto unfamiliar varieties of English or other languages. At a more basic level, my French teacher at school insisted that we (his pupils) could produce certain vowel sounds only with our mouths more open than we would ever need to do while speaking English. And a literally stiff upper lip is a great help if one wishes to mimic the speech sounds of Queen Elizabeth II.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology So what happens? Mostly we use air that is moving out of our lungs (pulmonic egressive air) to speak. We may pause while breathing in, or try to use the ingressive air – but this is likely to produce quiet speech, which is unclear to our listeners. (David Crystal notes how the normally balanced respiratory cycle is altered by speech, so that we breathe out slowly, using the air for speech, and breathe in swiftly, in order to keep talking). In languages other than English, speakers may also use non-pulmonic sound, such as clicks (found in southern Africa) or glottalic sounds (found worldwide). In the larynx, the vocal folds set up vibrations in the egressive air. The vibrating air passes through further cavities which can modify the sound and finally are articulated by the passive (immobile) articulators – the hard palate, the alveolar ridge and the upper teeth – and the active (mobile) articulators. These are the pharynx, the velum (or soft palate), the jaw and lower teeth, the lips and, above all, the tongue. This is so important and so flexible an organ, that language scientists identify different regions of the tongue by name, as these are associated with particular sounds. Working outwards these are: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ the back – opposite the soft palate the centre – opposite the meeting point of hard and soft palate the front – opposite the hard palate the blade – the tapering area facing the ridge of teeth the tip – the extreme end of the tongue The first three of these (back, centre and front) are known together as the dorsum (which is Latin for backbone or spine) Phonology, phonemes and phonetics You may have known for some time that the suffix –phone is to do with sounds. Think, for instance, of telephone, microphone, gramophone and xylophone. The morpheme comes from Greek phonema, which means a sound. †¢ †¢ Telephone means â€Å"distant sound† Microphone means â€Å"small sound† (because it sends an input to an amplifier which in turn drives loudspeakers – so the original sound is small compared to the output sound) Gramophone was originally a trade name . It comes from inverting the original form, phonograph (=sound-writing) – so called because the sound caused a needle to trace a pattern on a wax cylinder. The process is reversed for playing the sound back Xylophone means â€Å"wood sound† (because the instrument is one of very few where the musical note is produced simply by making wood resonate) †¢ The fundamental unit of grammar is a morpheme. A basic unit of written language is a grapheme. And the basic unit of sound is a phoneme. However, this is technically what Professor Crystal describes as â€Å"the smallest contrastive unit† and it is highly useful to you in explaining things – but strictly speaking may not exist in real spoken language use. That is, almost anything you say is a continuum and you rarely assemble a series of discrete sounds into a connected whole. (It is possible to do this with synthesised speech, as used by Professor Stephen Hawking – but the result is so different from naturally occurring speech that we can recognize it instantly. And there is no perfect or single right way to say anything – just as well because we can never exactly reproduce a previous performance.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology However, in your comments on phonology, you will certainly want sometimes to focus on single phonemes or small sequences of phonemes. A phoneme is a sound segment of words or syllables. Quite a good way to understand how it may indicate meaning is to consider how replacing it with another phoneme will change the word – so if we replace the middle sound in bad we can make bawd, bed, bid, bird and bud. In two cases here one letter is replaced with two but in all these cases it is a single vowel sound that changes. ) The first people to write in English used an existing alphabet – the Roman alphabet, which was itself adapted from the Greek alphabet for writing in Latin. (In the Roman Empire, Latin was the official language of government and administration, and especially of the army but in the eastern parts of the empire Greek was the official language, and in Rome Greek was spoken as widely as Latin. Because these first writers of English (Latin-speaking Roman monks) had more sounds than letters, they used the same letters to represent different sounds – perhaps making the assumption that the reader would recognize the word, and supply the appropriate sounds. It would be many years before anyone would think it possible to have more consistent spelling, and this has never been a realistic option for writers of English, though spelling has changed over time. And, in any case, the sounds of Old English are not exactly the same as the sounds of modern English. As linguists have become aware of more and more languages, many with sounds never heard in English, they have tried to create a comprehensive set of symbols to correspond to features of sound – vowels, consonants, clicks and glottalic sounds and non-segmental or suprasegmental features, such as stress and tone. Among many schemes used by linguists one has perhaps more authority than most, as it is the product of the International Phonetic Association (IPA). In the table below, you will see the phonetic characters that correspond to the phonemes used in normal spoken English. To give examples is problematic, as no two speakers will produce the same sound. In the case of the vowels and a few consonants, the examples will not match the sounds produced by all speakers – they reflect the variety of accent known as Received Pronunciation or RP. Note that RP is not specific to any region, but uses more of the sounds found in the south and midlands than in the north. It is a socially prestigious accent, favoured in greater or less degree by broadcasters, civil servants, barristers and people who record speaking clock messages. It is not fixed and has changed measurably in the last 50 years. But to give one example, the sound represented by ? is not common to all UK native speakers. In many parts of London and the south-east of England the sound represented by f will be substituted. So, in an advertisement, the mother-in-law of Vinnie Jones (former soccer player for Wimbledon and Wales; now an actor) says: â€Å"I fought ‘e was a big fug† (/a? f t i? w? z ? b? g fug/). You may also wonder what has happened to the letter x. This is used in English to represent two consonant sounds, those of k and s or of k and z. In phonetic transcription these symbols will be used. Consonant and vowel each have two related but distinct meanings in English. In writing of phonology, you need to make the distinction clear. When you were younger you may have learned that b,c,d,f and so on are consonants while a,e,i,o,u are vowels – and you may have wondered about y. In this case consonants and vowels denote the letters that commonly represent the relevant sounds. Phonologists are interested in vowel and consonant sounds and the phonetic symbols that represent these (including vowel and consonant letters). It may be wise for you to use the words consonant and vowel (alone) to denote the sounds. But it is better to use an unambiguous phrase – and write or speak about consonant or vowel sounds, consonant or vowel letters and consonant or vowel symbols. In most words these sounds can be identified, but there are some cases where we move from one vowel to another to create an effect that is like neither – and these are diphthongs. We also have some triphthongs – where three vowel sounds come in succession in words such as fire, power and sure. (But this depends on the speaker – many of us alter the sounds so that we say â€Å"our† as if it were are. For convenience you may prefer the term vowel glides – and say that â€Å"fine† and â€Å"boy† contain two-vowel glides while â€Å"fire† may contain a three-vowel glide.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology IPA symbols for the sounds of English The examples show the letters in bold that correspond to the sound that they i llustrate. You will find guidance below on how to use these symbols in electronic documents. The IPA distributes audio files in analog and digital form, with specimen pronunciations of these sounds. Consonants – pip, pot p b – bat, bug t – tell, table d – dog, dig k – cat, key g – get, gum f – fish, ph phone v – van, vat ? – th thick, th thump, faith th ? – th these, th there, smooth th s – sat, sit z – zebra, zap ? – sh ship ? – treasure, leisure s s h – hop, hut t? – ch chip dge, dge d? – lodg judg dg dg m – man, mumm mmy mm n – man, pan n n ng, ng ? – sing wrong ng l – let, lips r – rub, ran w – wait, worm j – yet, yacht Short vowels ? – bit, silly i i ? – bet, hea e ead ea ? – cat, dad a a ? – dog, rotten o o ? – cut, nut u u ? – put, soo u oot oo ? – about, clever er Long vowels i? – crea eam, see een ea ee bur fir urn, ir irm ur – har far ard, ar ar – cor fau orn, au aun or u? – boo glue oob, ue oo Diphthongs a? – spice, pie i ie – wai fate ait, a ai – toy joy oy, oy oy – oa oats, note o a? – clow vow own, ow ow – bor ored, pour oured or our – dee pie eer, ie ier ee – hai bea air, ea ear ai – cur fue ure, ue uel ur  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology A phoneme is a speech sound that helps us construct meaning. That is, if we replace it with another sound (where this is possible) we get a new meaning or no meaning at all. If I replace the initial consonant (/r/) from rubble, I can get double or Hubble (astronomer for whom the space telescope is named) or meaningless forms (as regards the lexicon of standard English) like fubble and wubble. The same thing happens if I change the vowel and get rabble, rebel, Ribble (an English river) and the nonsense form robble. (I have used the conventional spelling of rebel here, but to avoid confusion should perhaps use phonetic transcription, so that replacements would always appear in the same position as the character they replace. But what happens when a phoneme is adapted to the spoken context in which it occurs, in ways that do not alter the meaning either for speaker or hearer. Rather than say these are different phonemes that share the same meaning we use the model of allophones, which are variants of a phoneme. Thus if we isolate the l sound in the initial position in â€Å"lick† and in the terminal position in â€Å"ball†, we should be able t o hear that the sound is (physically) different as is the way our speech organs produce it. Technically, in the second case, the back of the tongue is raised towards the velum or soft palate. The initial l sound is called clear l, while the terminal l sound is sometimes called a dark l. When we want to show the detail of phonetic variants or allophones we enclose the symbols in square brackets whereas in transcribing sounds from a phonological viewpoint we use slant lines. So, using the IPA transcription [l] is clear l, while [? ] is dark l. If this is not clear think: am I only describing a sound (irrespective of how this sound fits into a system, has meaning and so on)? If so, use square brackets. Am I trying to show how the sound is part of a wider system (irrespective of how exactly it sounds in a given instance)? If so, use slant brackets. So long as we need a form of transcription, we will rely on the IPA scheme. But increasingly it is possible to use digital recording and reproduction to produce reference versions of sounds. This would not, of course, prevent change in the choice of which particular sounds to use in a given context. When people wonder about harass (h? r? s) or harass (h? r? s) they usually are able to articulate either, and are concerned about which reveals them as more or less educated in the use of the â€Å"proper† form. For your information, the stress historically falls on the first syllable, to rhyme with embarrass – thus in both Pocket Oxford [UK, 1969] and Funk & Wagnalls New Practical Standard [US, 1946]. The fashion for â€Å"hu-rass† is found on both sides of the Atlantic and we should not credit it to, or blame it on, US speakers of English. ) Phonologists also refer to segments. A segment is â€Å"a discrete unit that can be identified in a stream of speech†, according to Professor Crystal. In English the segments would correspond to vowel sounds and consonant sounds, say. This is a clear metaphor if we think of fruit – the number of segments varies, but is finite in a whole fruit. So some languages have few segments and others many – from 11 in Rotokas and Mura to 141 in ! Xu. The term may be most helpful in indicating what non-segmental or supra-segmental (above the segments) features of spoken language are.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology The sounds of English Vowels English has twelve vowel sounds. In the table above they are divided into seven short and five long vowels. An alternative way of organizing them is ccording to where (in the mouth) they are produced. This method allows us to describe them as front, central and back. We can qualify them further by how high the tongue and lower jaw are when we make these vowel sounds, and by whether our lips are rounded or spread, and finally by whether they are short or long. This scheme shows the following arrangement: Front vowels â⠂¬ ¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ /i? / – cream, seen (long high front spread vowel) /? /- bit, silly (short high front spread vowel) /? / – bet, head (short mid front spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /e/ /? – cat, dad (short low front spread vowel); this may also be shown by /a/ Central vowels †¢ †¢ †¢ / /- burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol / / /? / – about, clever (short mid central spread vowel); this is sometimes known as schwa, or the neutral vowel sound – it never occurs in a stressed position. /? / – cut, nut (short low front spread vowel); this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers in the Midlands and further north in Britain Back vowels †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ /u? / – boob, glue (long high back rounded vowel) /? – put, soot (short high back rounded vowel); also shown by /u/ / / – corn, faun (long mid back rounded vowel) also shown by /o? / /? /- dog, rotten (short low back rounded vowel) also shown by /o/ / / – hard, far (long low back spread vowel) We can also arrange the vowels in a table or even depict them against a cross-section of the human mouth. Here is an example of a simple table: Front High Mid Low Central Back ? i? ? ? ? ? ? u? ?  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Diphthongs Diphthongs are sounds that begin as one vowel and end as another, while gliding between them. For this reason they are sometimes described as glide vowels. How many are there? Almost every modern authority says eight – but they do not all list the same eight (check this for yourself). Simeon Potter, in Our Language (Potter, S, [1950] Chapter VI, Sounds and Spelling, London, Penguin) says there are nine – and lists those I have shown in the table above, all of which I have found in the modern reference works. The one most usually omitted is / / as in bored. Many speakers do not use this diphthong, but use the same vowel in poured as in fraud – but it is alive and well in the north of Britain. Potter notes that all English diphthongs are falling – that is the first element is stressed more than the second. Other languages have rising diphthongs, where the second element is stressed, as in Italian uomo (man) and uovo (egg). Consonants Some authorities claim one or two fewer consonants than I have shown above, regarding those with double symbols (/t? / and /d? /) as â€Å"diphthong consonants† in Potter’s phrase. The list omits one sound that is not strictly a consonant but works like one. The full IPA list of phonetic symbols includes some for non-pulmonic consonants (not made with air coming from the lungs), click and glottal sounds. In some varieties of English, especially in the south of Britain (but the sound has migrated north) we find the glottal plosive or glottal stop, shown by the symbol /? / (essentially a question mark without the dot at the tail). This sound occurs in place of /t/ for some speakers – so /bot? l/ or /botl/ (bottle) become /bo l/ or /bo? l/. We form consonants by controlling or impeding the egressive (outward) flow of air. We do this with the articulators – from the glottis, past the velum, the hard palate and alveolar ridge and the tongue, to the teeth and lips. The sound results from three things: †¢ †¢ †¢ Voicing All vowels must be voiced – they are caused by vibration in the vocal cords. But consonants may be voiced or not. Some of the consonant sounds of English come in pairs that differ in being voiced or not – in which case they are described as voiceless or unvoiced. So b is voiced and p is the unvoiced consonant in one pair, while voiced g and voiceless k form another pair. We can explain the consonant sounds by the place where the articulation principally occurs or by the kinds of articulation that occurs there. The first scheme gives us this arrangement: voicing – causing the vocal cords to vibrate where the articulation happens how the articulation happens – how the airflow is controlled  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Articulation described by region †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Glottal articulation – articulation by the glottis. We use this for one consonant in English. This is /h/ in initial position in house or hope. Velar articulation – we do this with the back of the tongue against the velum. We use it for initial hard /g/ (as in golf) and for final /? / (as in gong). Palatal articulation – we do this with the front of the tongue on the hard palate. We use it for /d? / (as in jam) and for /? / (as in sheep or sugar). Alveolar articulation – we do this with the tongue blade on the alveolar ridge. We use it for /t/ (as in teeth), /d/ (as in dodo) /z/ (as in zebra) /n/ (as in no) and /l/ (as in light). Dental articulation – we do this with the tip of the tongue on the back of the upper front teeth. We use it for /? / (as in think) and /? / (as in that). This is one form of articulation that we can observe and feel ourselves doing. †¢ †¢ Labio-dental articulation – we do this with the lower lip and upper front teeth. We use it for /v/ (as in vampire). Labial articulation – we do this with the lips for /b/ (as in boat) and /m/ (as in most). Where we use two lips (as in English) this is bilabial articulation. Articulation described by manner This scheme gives us a different arrangement into stop (or plosive) consonants, affricates, fricatives, nasal consonants, laterals and approximants. Stop consonants (because the airflow is stopped) or plosive consonants (because it is subsequently released, causing an outrush of air and a burst of sound) are: o o o †¢ †¢ Bilabial voiced /b/ (as in boat) and voiceless /p/ (as in post) Alveolar voiced /d/ (as in dad) and voiceless /t/ (as in tap) Velar voiced /g/ (as in golf) and voiceless /k/ as in (cow) Affric ates are a kind of stop consonant, where the expelled air causes friction rather than plosion. They are palatal /t? / (as in cheat) and palatal /d? / (as in jam) Fricatives come from restricting, but not completely stopping, the airflow. The air passes through a narrow space and the sound arises from the friction this produces. They come in voiced and unvoiced pairs: o o o o Labio-dental voiced /v/ (as in vole) and unvoiced /f/ (as in foal) Dental voiced /? / (as in those) and unvoiced /? / (as in thick) Alveolar voiced /z/ (as in zest) and unvoiced /s/ (as in sent) Palatal voiced /? / (as in the middle of leisure) and unvoiced /? / (as at the end of trash) †¢ Nasal consonants involve closing the articulators but lowering the uvula, which normally closes off the route to the nose, through which the air escapes. There are three nasal consonants in English: o o o Bilabial /m/ (as in mine) Alveolar /n/ (as in nine) Velar /? / (as at the end of gong).  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology †¢ †¢ Lateral consonants allow the air to escape at the sides of the tongue. In English there is only one such sound, which is alveolar /l/ (as at the start of lamp) Approximants do not impede the flow of air. They are all voiced but are counted as consonants chiefly because of how they function in syllables. They are: o o o Bilabial /w/ (as in water) Alveolar /r/ (as in road) Palatal /j/ (as in yet) Syllables When you think of individual sounds, you may think of them in terms of syllables. These are units of phonological organization and smaller than words. Alternatively, think of them as units of rhythm. Although they may contain several sounds, they combine them in ways that create the effect of unity. Thus splash is a single syllable but it combines three consonants, a vowel, and a final consonant /spl+? +? /. Some words have a single syllable – so they are monosyllables or monosyllabic. Others have more than one syllable and are polysyllables or polysyllabic. Sometimes you may see a word divided into its syllables, but this may be an artificial exercise, since in real speech the sounds are continuous. In some cases it will be impossible to tell whether a given consonant was ending one syllable of beginning another. It is possible, for example, to pronounce lamppost so that there are two /p/ sounds in succession with some interval between them. But many native English speakers will render this as /l? m-p st/ or /l? m-p sd/. Students of language may find it helpful to be able to identify individual syllables in explaining pronunciation and language change – one of the things you may need to do is explain which are the syllables that are stressed in a particular word or phrase. Suprasegmentals In written English we use punctuation to signal some things like emphasis, and the speed with which we want our readers to move at certain points. In spoken English we use sounds in ways that do not apply to individual segments but to stretches of spoken discourse from words to phrases, clauses and sentences. Such effects are described as non-segmental or suprasegmental – or, using the adjective in a plural nominal (noun) form, simply suprasegmentals. Among these effects are such things as stress, intonation, tempo and rhythm – which collectively are known as prosodic features. Other effects arise from altering the quality of the voice, making it breathy or husky and changing what is sometimes called the timbre – and these are paralinguistic features. Both of these kinds of effect may signal meaning. But they do not do so consistently from one language to another, and this an cause confusion to students learning a second language.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Prosodic features †¢ Stress or loudness – increasing volume is a simple way of giving emphasis, and this is a crude measure of stress. But it is usually combined with other things like changes in tone and tempo. We use stress to convey some kind s of meaning (semantic and pragmatic) such as urgency or anger or for such things as imperatives. Intonation – you may be familiar in a loose sense with the notion of tone of voice. We use varying levels of pitch in sequences (contours or tunes) to convey particular meanings. Falling and rising intonation in English may signal a difference between statement and question. Younger speakers of English may use rising (question) intonation without intending to make the utterance a question. Tempo – we speak more or less quickly for many different reasons and purposes. Occasionally it may be that we are adapting our speech to the time we have in which to utter it (as, for example, in a horse-racing commentary). But mostly tempo reflects some kinds of meaning or attitude – so we give a truthful answer to a question, but do so rapidly to convey our distraction or irritation. Rhythm – patterns of stress, tempo and pitch together create a rhythm. Some kinds of formal and repetitive rhythm are familiar from music, rap, poetry and even chants of soccer fans. But all speech has rhythm – it is just that in spontaneous utterances we are less likely to hear regular or repeating patterns. †¢ †¢ †¢ Paralinguistic features How many voices do we have? We are used to â€Å"putting on† silly voices for comic effects or in play. We may adapt our voices for speaking to babies, or to suggest emotion, excitement or desire. These effects are familiar in drama, where the use of a stage whisper may suggest something clandestine and conspiratorial. Nasal speech may suggest disdain, though it is easily exaggerated for comic effect (as by the late Kenneth Williams in many Carry On films). Such effects are sometimes described as timbre or voice quality. We all may use them sometimes but they are particularly common among entertainers such as actors or comedians. This is not surprising, as they practise using their voices in unusual ways, to represent different characters. The performers in the BBC’s Teletubbies TV programme use paralinguistic features to suggest the different characters of Tinky-Winky, Dipsy, La-La and Po.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Accent Everyone’s use of the sound system is unique and personal. And few of us use sounds consistently in all contexts – we adapt to different situations. We rarely adapt our sounds alone – more likely we mind our language in the popular sense, by attending to our lexical choices, grammar and phonology. ) Most human beings adjust their speech to resemble that of those around them. This is very easy to demonstrate, as when some vogue words from broadcasting surf a wave of popularity before settling down in the language more modestly or passing out of use again. This is particularly true of sounds, in the sense that some identifiable groups of people share (with some individual variation) a collection of sounds that are not found elsewhere, and these are accents. We think of accents as marking out people by geographical region and, to a less degree, by social class or education. So we might speak of a Scouse (Liverpool), Geordie (Newcastle) or Brummie (Birmingham) accent. These are quite general descriptions – within each of these cities we would differentiate further. And we should also not confuse real accent features in a given region with stereotyped and simplified versions of these which figure in (or disfigure) TV drama – Emmerdale, Brookside, Coronation Street and Albert Square are not reliable sources for anything we might want o know about their real-world originals. And the student who hoped to study the speech of people in Peckham by watching episodes of John Sullivan’s situation comedy Only Fools and Horses was deeply misguided. Thinking of social class, we might speak of a public school accent (stiff upper lip and cut glass vowels). But we do not observe occupational accents and we are unlikely to speak of a baker’s, soldier’s or accountant’s accent (whereas we might study their special uses of lexis and grammar). This is not the place to study in detail the causes of such accents or, for example, how they are changing. Language researchers may wish to record regional variant forms and their frequency. In Britain today (perhaps because of the influence of broadcasting) we can observe sound features moving from one region to another (like the glottal stop which is now common in the north of England), while also recording how other features of accent are not subject to this kind of change. Studying phonology alone will not answer such questions. But it gives you the means to identify specific phonetic features of accent and record them objectively.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Received Pronunciation Received Pronunciation (or RP) is a special accent – a regionally neutral accent that is used as a standard for broadcasting and some other kinds of public speaking. It is not fixed – you can hear earlier forms of RP in historical broadcasts, such as newsreel films from the Second World War. Queen Elizabeth II has an accent st close to the RP of her own childhood, but not very close to the RP of the 21 century. RP excites powerful feelings of admiration and repulsion. Some see it as a standard or the correct form of spoken English, while others see its use (in broadcasting, say) as an affront to the dignity of their own region. Its merit lies in its being more widely understood by a national and international audience than any regional accent. Non-native speakers often want to learn RP, rather than a regional accent of English. RP exists but no-one is compelled to use it. But if we see it as a reference point, we can decide how far we want to use the sounds of our region where these differ from the RP standard. And its critics may make a mistake in supposing all English speakers even have a regional identity – many people are geographically mobile, and do not stay for long periods in any one place. RP is also a very loose and flexible standard. It is not written in a book (though the BBC does give its broadcasters guides to pronunciation) and does not prescribe such things as whether to stress the first or second syllable in research. You will hear it on all the BBC’s national radio channels, to a greater or less degree. On Radio 3 you will perhaps hear the most conservative RP, while Radio 5 will give you a more contemporary version with more regional and class variety – but these are very broad generalizations, and refer mainly to the presenters, newsreaders, continuity announcers and so on. RP is used as a standard in some popular language reference works. For example, the Oxford Guide to the English Language (Weiner, E [1984], Pronunciation, p. 45, Book Club Associates/OUP, London) has this useful description of RP: â€Å"The aim of recommending one type of pronunciation rather than another, or of giving a word a recommended spoken form, naturally implies the existence of a standard. There are of course many varieties of English, even within the limits of the British Isles, but it is not the business of this section to describe them. The treatment here is based upon Received Pronunciation (RP), namely ‘the pronunciation of that variety of British English widely considered to be least regional, being originally that used by educated speakers in southern England. ’ This is not to suggest that other varieties are inferior; rather, RP is here taken as a neutral national standard, just as it is in its use in broadcasting or in the teaching of English as a foreign language. † Accent and social class Accent is certainly related to social class. This is a truism – because accent is one of the things that we use as an indicator of social class. For a given class, we can express this positively or negatively. As regards the highest social class, positively we can identify features of articulation – for certain sounds, upper class speakers do not open or move the lips as much as other speakers of English. Negatively, we can identify such sounds as the glottal stop as rare among, and untypical of, speakers from this social class. Alternatively we can look at vowel choices or preferences. For example, the upper classes for long used the vowel /? / in cases where /? / is standard – thus Coventry would be /k? v? ntri? /. C. S. Lewis in The Great Divorce depicts a character who pronounces God as â€Å"Gud† – â€Å" ‘Would to God’ he continued, but he was now pronouncing it Gud†¦Ã¢â‚¬  We may think of dropping or omitting consonants as a mark of the lower social classes and uneducated people. But dropping of terminal g – or rather substituting /n/ for /? / was until recently a mark of the upper class â€Å"toff†, who would enjoy, huntin’, fishin’ and shootin’. We can find a celebrated literary example in Dorothy L. Sayers’ Lord Peter Wimsey. Among real life speakers in whom I have observed this tendency I would identify the late Sir Alf Ramsey. I do not know whether Alf Ramsey, who managed the England football team, was brought up to speak in this way or acquired the habit later. ) Investigating the connection can be challenging, however, since social class is an artificial construct. Assuming that you have found a way to identify yo ur subjects as belonging to some definable social group, then you can study vowel choices or frequencies. Even the most cursory attention tells us that the Queen has distinct speech sounds. But can we explain them in detail? Does she share them with other members of her family? Do other speakers share them?  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Pronunciation and prescription The English Language List is an Internet discussion forum for English language teachers. Recently a student, not a native speaker but clearly a very competent writer of English, asked where he could get help to learn to speak in a standard British accent. Many of the responses came from people who were not answering his question but trying to persuade him to stick with his current accent (which he felt would disadvantage him in his business career). Yet we are not disparaging regional accents when we try to learn the neutral and prestigious standard form. (What the discussion never really revealed was how many of the list members would identify themselves as RP speakers. ) The prescriptive tradition in English grammar was unscientific and perhaps harmful. But setting down authoritative standard forms is not always so unwise. In spelling they are useful, and the same may be true of pronunciation. Dictionaries do not compel the reader to learn and use the pronunciations they show – but they do give a representation of the pronunciation according to RP. Some show variant pronunciations as well as the principal RP form. If you are a student (or even a teacher) you may find RP an unfamiliar accent – maybe you can see that the phonetic transcription indicates a pronunciation different from the one you normally use. No one is forcing you to change your own speech sounds, in which your sense of identity may be profoundly located. But you can become aware that the local norm is not the universal standard. Now that English is an international language, its development is certainly not controlled by what happens in the UK. So British RP may cease to be a useful standard for learners of English. Increasingly, language learners favour a mid-Atlantic accent, which shares features of British RP and the speech of the eastern USA. Language acquisition Very young children do not produce the sounds they will use as adults partly because they are unable to form them (physically their speech organs have not developed fully) and partly because they may not know exactly what the sound is that they wish to produce. Children may also be less subtle in controlling the flow of egressive air, so that they will continue speaking, rather than pause briefly, while drawing more air in. Young children may have a sense of stressed syllables as more important – so they may omit unstressed elements before or after. So, for example, a child may ask for a ‘nana rather than a banana. (Alternatively, the child may know that there is some repetition of sound here, but limit it to two syllables. ) I am supposing that the non-standard form is spoken by a child, but perhaps repeated back by adults. But one often observes adults (unhelpfully) using what they suppose to be an easier form of a word. On the other hand, some children have resisted this tendency. Though they may not articulate a word in full or exactly, they can recognize it as an incomplete or mistaken form when an adult repeats it back to them. We see this in this exchange between an adult and a four year old, recorded by George Keith and John Shuttleworth: Adult: What do you want to be when you grow up? Child: A dowboy. Adult: So you want to be a dowboy, eh? Child: No! Not a dowboy, a dowboy! The child cannot articulate the /k/ initial sound but knows that what he hears from the adult is not the form of the word he is used to hearing, so protests. Since children learn by imitation of examples it may be helpful when they begin formal education to give them such examples, but not by continually rebuking them for saying things â€Å"wrongly†. Children do not learn to articulate all sounds at the same stage in their development. Teachers of children in early years (nursery and reception) classes should be able to identify the few cases where there is a disorder or problem for which some specialist intervention is appropriate.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Language change Change happens in language – and the sounds of English are not exempt. Of course, basic sounds do not change in the sense that the phonemes represented in the IPA transcription will not go away. And it is rare, but not impossible, for speakers of a given language to begin to use phonemes they did not use before. Thus, most English speakers faced with French –ogne (as in Boulogne or Dordogne) anglicise to Boloyn (/b? l n/). And Welsh double l in initial position (as in Llanfair and many other place names) they sound simply as /l/ rather than a voiceless unilateral l. What does change is the choice of which sound to use in a given context – though choice may suggest that this is voluntary whereas the change normally happens unnoticed. At a very simple level we can see, from rhymes in poetry that no longer work, that one or more words has acquired a new standard pronunciation. So John Donne writes (1571-1631) â€Å"And find/What wind/Serves to advance an honest mind†. We have retained the vowel sound in wind (verb, as in wind up) but not in wind (noun, as in north wind). We can still observe vowel change. In my own lifetime envelope was pronounced with the initial vowel /? (as if it were onvelope). This pronunciation is becoming more rare, and persists mostly among older speakers. Turquoise was once commonly sounded as in French /t kw? z/ – but now it is more or less uniformly /t k z/ or /t k s/ (perhaps by analogy with tortoise). Far more common are changes in stress patterns. So research (more or less universal in the UK when I was a child) has given way to re-search. In the case of harass the stress has shifted the other way, giving harass. We cannot sensibly say that the new form is â€Å"wrong† or â€Å"bad English† (even if we prefer the older form). But we can observe the frequency with which the new form occurs, and see if it does come to supplant the older form or whether both forms persist. Change happens within regional varieties, too – so the glottal stop has moved its way northwards from London and southwards from Glasgow (where it has been found for 150 years). This is one feature of what Paul Kerswill calls dialect levelling. Similarly use of /f/ or /v/ in place of /? / and /? / is spreading north from London. Perhaps the most well documented change occurring now is in sentence intonation. This is especially common among younger people, but not exclusively so. The change lies in a tendency to use rising (question) intonation more frequently. What is not clear, in contexts that allow either, is whether the speaker intends to ask a question or means to make a statement. We cannot be sure if the rising intonation conveys meaning, or is habitual. One common way for pronunciation to change is by elision – compressing the word to remove a syllable. Once it was common to sound the –ed ending on past tense verbs, whereas now these verbs end with a /t/ sound. We do still sound the –ed ending on adjectives, even when these are formed from the past tenses – as in naked, wicked and learned. We can contrast the learned professor with what her pupils learned in the lecture. (The first has two syllables, the second only one. ) Police is often pronounced as a monosyllable /pli? s/ (for example by the newsreader Sue Lawley). Recently I have observed several newsreaders eliding the middle syllable of terrorist, producing the form /t? r st/ or sometimes /t? r? st/. On the other hand, literacy may alter pronunciation. The n in column is silent, and in the Second World War, people would often speak of the Fifth Columnist (/k? l? m? st/). But now broadcasters speaks of those who write columns in newspapers as /k? l? mn? sts/ – thereby sounding what was silent /n/.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Phonology for exam students Phonology as an explicit subject of detailed study is not compulsory for students taking Advanced level courses in English Language. But it is one of the five â€Å"descriptions of language† commended by the AQA syllabus B (the others are: lexis, grammar, pragmatics and semantics). In some kinds of study it will be odd if it does not appear in your analysis or interpretation of data. In written exams, you may want to comment on some features of phonology in explaining example language data – these may be presented to you on the exam paper, or may be your own examples, which illustrate, say, some point about language change, language acquisition or sociolinguistics. You may wish to use diagrams, models or the IPA transcription – and if you are able to do so, this may be helpful. But if you do not feel confident about using these, you can still make useful points about phonology – you can show stress simply by underlining or highlighting the stressed syllable. And you can show many aspects of phonology by using the standard Western (Roman-English) alphabet appropriately – as in contrasting pronunciations of harass as: †¢ †¢ ha-russ (first syllable stressed, vowel is a; second syllable unstressed vowel is neutral) or huh-rass (first syllable unstressed, neutral vowel; second syllable stressed, vowel is a) Phonetic symbols and electronic documents Representing phonetic symbols in electronic documents can be a challenge, unless you have the right software. Assuming that you have a word-processing program, you need to use special fonts that will represent the IPA symbols. These are either the SIL IPA fonts (such as SILdoulosIPA) or Unicode fonts (like Lucida Sans Unicode, which I have used in this document). If you are producing work that will be printed, then you can add things by hand later, but this is messy and best avoided. There is a lot of guidance on the IPA homepage about how to cope with this problem. If you do find a way to reproduce the symbols you need, it may make sense to paste them all at the end of the document on which you are working. Then, you can copy and paste as you need to use them. If you do not do this, then you will have to use he Alt key and the numeric keypad, since the keys on the normal keyboard will only give you the symbols that resemble ordinary letters. Different ways of representing sound Conventions of language science and lexicographers If you study reference works you may find a variety of schemes for representing different aspects of phonology – there is no single universal scheme that covers everything y ou may need to do. And many dictionaries may not even use the IPA alphabet, for the very obvious reason that the reader is not familiar with this transcription and can cope without it. The text on the left comes from the Pocket Oxford Dictionary – this shows a simple phonetic representation based on the standard Western alphabet, with accents to show different vowels. Look in any dictionary you have and you may find something similar.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Literary models In representing speech – for example in drama, poetry or prose fiction – some authors are interested not merely in the words but also in how they are spoken. One of the most familiar concerns is that of how to represent regional accents. Here is a fairly early example, from the second chapter of Wuthering Heights (1847), in which the servant Joseph refuses to admit Mr. Lockwood into the house: â€Å" ‘T’ maister’s dahn I’t’ fowld. Goa rahnd by the end ut’ laith, if yah went to spake tull him† Tennyson (1809-1892) has a similar approach in his poem, Northern Farmer, Old Style: â€Å"What atta stannin’ theer fur, and doesn’ bring me the aale? / Doctor’s a ‘toattler, lass, and ‘e’s allus i’ the owd taale†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Joseph comes from what is now West Yorkshire, while Tennyson’s farmer is supposedly from the north of Lincolnshire. Here is an earlier example, from Walter Scott’s Heart of Midlothian (1830), which shows some phonetic qualities of the lowlands Scots accent. In this passage the Laird of Dumbiedikes (from the country near Edinburgh) is on his deathbed. He advises his son about how to take his drink: â€Å"My father tauld me sae forty years sin’, but I never fand time to mind him. – Jock, ne’er drink brandy in the morning, it files the stamach sair†¦Ã¢â‚¬  George Bernard Shaw, in Pygmalion (1914), uses one phonetic character (? schwa) in his attempt to represent the accent of Eliza Doolittle, a Cockney flower girl: â€Å"There’s menners f’ yer! T? -oo banches o voylets trod into the mad†¦Will ye-oo py me f’them. † However, after a few sentences of phonetic dialogue, Shaw reverts to standard spelling, noting: â€Å"Here, with apologies, this desperate attempt to represent her dialect without a phonetic alphabet must be abandoned as u nintelligible outside London†. In Pygmalion Professor Higgins teaches Eliza to speak in an upper-class accent, so as to pass her off as a duchess. In the course of the play, therefore, her accent changes. The actress playing the part, however, may have a natural accent closer to that with which Eliza speaks at the completion of her education, so in playing the part she may doing the reverse of what Eliza undergoes, by gradually reverting to a natural manner of articulation. (Eliza’s pronunciation improves ahead of her understanding of grammar, so that at one point she says memorably: â€Å"My aunt died of influenza: so they said. But it’s my belief they done the old woman in. ) In Pygmalion Shaw does not merely represent accent (and other features of speech) but makes this crucial to an exploration of how speech relates to identity and social class. Charles Dickens is particularly interested in the sounds of speech. He observes that many speakers have difficulty with initial /v/ and /w/. Sam Weller, in The Pickwick Papers, regularly transposes these: â€Å" ‘Vell,’ said Sam at length, ‘if this don’t beat cock-fightin’ nothin’ never vill†¦That wery next house†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ â€Å" Mr. Hubble, in Great Expectations does, the same thing when he describes young people as â€Å"naterally wicious†. Joe Gargery, in the same novel, has many verbal peculiarities, of which perhaps the most striking is in his description of the Blacking Warehouse, which is less impressive than the picture Joe has seen on bills where it is â€Å"drawd too architectooralooral†. In Chapter 16 of Our Mutual Friend, Betty Higden is proud of Mr. Sloppy (an orphan she has fostered) not only because he can read, but because he is able to use different voice styles for various speakers. â€Å"You mightn’t think it, but Sloppy is a beautiful reader of a newspaper. He do the Police in different voices. † Dickens also finds a way to show tempo and rhythm. In Chapter 23 of Little Dorrit, Flora Finching speaks at length and without any pauses: â€Å"Most unkind never to have come back to see us since that day, though naturally it was not to be expected that there should be any attraction at our house and you were much more pleasantly engaged, that’s pretty certain, and is she fair or dark blue eyes or black I wonder, not that I expect that she should be anything but a perfect contrast to me in all particulars for I am a disappointment as I very well know and you are quite right to be devoted no doubt though what am I saying Arthur never mind I hardly know myself Good gracious!  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Background reading on phonology There are very full accounts of phonology in both of Professor David Crystal’s encyclopedias. See his Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Part IV, The Medium of Language: Speaking and Listening (pp. 123175; ISBN 0521424437) and his E ncyclopedia of the English Language, Part IV, 17, The Sound System (pp. 236-255; ISBN 0521596556). For a very clear and succinct account, look at Howard Jackson’s and Peter Stockwell’s Introduction to the Nature and Functions of Language, 2. 1, Sounds and letters (pp. 11-23; ISBN 0748725806). There is a longer and more discursive account in Shirley Russell’s Grammar, Structure and Style, Spoken English (pp. 107-168; ISBN 0198311982) You can find lots of help online. The best place to start is the International Phonetic Association’s own Web site at: http://www2. arts. gla. ac. uk/IPA/ipa. html You will find some excellent resources from the languages department of the University of Victoria in British Columbia – start at http://web. uvic. ca/ling/ipa/handbook/ For a great introduction to Scots – with some excellent guidance on phonology – try Andy Eagle’s Wir Ain Laid (Our Own Language) at http://www. scots-online. org/grammar/index. htm For help with fonts go to the IPA Unicode site at http://www. phon. ucl. ac. uk/home/wells/ipa-unicode. htm and Alan Wells’ Unicode Resources at http://www. hclrss. demon. co. uk/unicode/index. tml. You could also try the Microsoft typography site at http://www. microsoft. com/typography/default. asp Apart from materials quoted from other sources, the copyright in this guide belongs to Andrew Moore. You are free to use it for any educational purpose, including making multiple copies electronically or by printing. You may not distribute it in any form other than the original, without the express permission of the author. andrew. [email  protected] net  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/

Cinderella/Everafter Comparison

Sarah Hubbard September 19, 2010 Children’s Lit Review/Analysis One EVERAFTER/A CINDERELLA STORY Cinderella is a classic childhood fairy tale of a young woman who’s mother and father both die, leaving her with a wicked stepmother and two wicked stepsisters. There have been several movies portraying this classic tale. One of which is Everafter starring Drew Barrymore. In this movie a girl loses her father and mother leaving her to be a servant for her stepmother.She meets a prince and falls in love. In another Cinderella type story line A Cinderella Story starring Hilary Duff, a girl who loses her parents end up with her stepmother and two sisters. She falls in love with the popular boy in school, who ends up being her prince charming. Both movies are based on the same classic fairy tale yet they differ from each other and the classic story. The storyline of Everafter is more similar to the classic tale than that of A Cinderella Story.Everafter has all of the usual simil arities to the classic version for example, her parents die, she ends up with her evil stepmother and two evil stepsister (one of these sisters ends up being good in the end), she falls in love with a prince, she gets help from two woman working in her house, she loses her glass slipper, prince charming finds her and presents her with her glass slipper and they live happily ever after. In the version known to most children, Cinderella does not fall in love with the prince until she goes to the ball and has to be home before midnight.In this movie she meets the prince while he is borrowing a horse from her manor. She dresses up like a countess and he falls in love with her. At the ball when she goes to tell him who she really is, he gets mad and she runs away, losing her glass slipper. In the children’s version of the story the prince goes house to house trying to find the one who fits into the slipper and she will be his bride. In Everafter, the prince realizes what he has lo st and goes to her house only to find she has been sold. He then has to go rescue her and presents her with her glass slipper.In both stories they live happily ever after. A Cinderella Story varies much more. This movie is set in present time and in America, whereas the others are thought of as older times and set in Europe. This movie still has the classical story line but with a twist. She lives with her step mom and two step sister, she does all their chores, there is a boy whom she falls in love with, she has help from a woman who has been her friend for all of her life, there is a search for the mystery girl, and she drops something when she is running away because it is midnight.That is where the similarities end. There are many more differences from the classic tale in this modern day movie. The character Sam (Cinderella) and Austin (prince charming) exchange emails and chat online before meeting. Austin has a girlfriend who is mean to Sam. After finding out who Sam really is Austin does not fall in love with her right away. Sam tell Austin to stop pretending to be someone he is not and then Austin shows who he really is and only then can prince charming fall in love with Cinderella. They go off to Princeton together and live happily ever after.I enjoyed Everafter more than I did A Cinderella Story because Everafter seems more of a fairy tale, more of a dream or fantasy. Whereas A Cinderella Story seems like it could happen in everyday life. For me, I would rather fantasize that I could be a princess and find my prince than fantasize about talking to a boy on the Internet and going off to college with him. I think that the differences in A Cinderella Story did detract from the experience for me. On the other hand I think in Everafter the differences enhanced the movie.For example, getting to know the relationship between Cinderella and the prince enhance the love you feel for the characters. In the Cinderella I knew as a kid it was more like love at fir st sight. In this movie their love grows in to a relationship, which makes it seem more likely to actually happen. These movies would attract a child viewer because every little girl knows the story of Cinderella. The modern day twist may make a little girl believe that something like this could actually happen to her and learn from the moral of the story.I think that Everafter would be more appealing to a young girl because what little girl doesn’t want to be a princess. Both of these stories shows that in the end good things happen to good people and the bad guys get what they deserve. I think that is a very inspiring message to send to a child. I would recommend both of these movies to everyone. There is no inappropriate language or messages that would be offensive to anyone. Everafter is one of my all time favorite movies and I have never heard anybody say anything bad about it.This movie would be appropriate for little kids, teenagers, young adults, adults and older peop le. Both movies are Cinderella type stories so they would probably influence girls more than they would boys. A Cinderella Story is aimed more at teenage girls. Younger girls may also like this movie but older people might think it was for younger more immature kids. In conclusion, the classic fairy tale of Cinderella is portrayed in both of the movies, Everafter, and A Cinderella Story.Each movie has similarities to the classic fairy tale, but Everafter is closer to the original story than A Cinderella Story. A Cinderella Story has a modern day twist, with technology and high school. Everafter on the other hand is set back in time and has a European setting. Both girls in these movies lose their parents and end up serving their stepmothers and step sisters, they both fall in love with someone in a different â€Å"class† than themselves, yet both end up showing the guy that it class doesn’t matter when it comes to love and they all live happily ever after.

Knowledge management questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Knowledge management questions - Assignment Example People establish knowledge through observation, patterns of recurrence and finally generalizing and abstraction. He also explained the phenomena in nature which cannot be perceived by the senses as those which can be explained by the intuition (AMDS 8800 Study Notes; Barnes 72-74). Aristotle’s objective to establish and to define the different knowledge is related to epistemology, a branch of philosophy that if focused on the establishment of knowledge. This is important for knowledge managers to be able to know and be conscious of the importance of the knowledge they manage. Specifically, Aristotle’s view helped the knowledge managers appreciate and then segregate the different forms and classification of knowledge. His focus on the rules of the inductive and deductive thinking established the rules and guidelines for critical analysis of the different knowledge systems. Aristotle’s contribution in the foundations of scientific method specifically the importance of empirical basis in the establishment of knowledge is essential on the development of the body of knowledge presently used (AMDS 8800 Study Notes; Barnes 72-74). The message of Aristotle’s view then is for knowledge managers to be conscious of the different types of knowledge, skills and capabilities generated by different people and to appreciate and analyze them through critical study of important empirical evidences. Knowledge Management (KM) is a business model that is focused on the interdisciplinary management of knowledge in an organizational framework and objectives on the basis of disciplines such as business, economics, psychology, and information management. It is focused on the different issues related to people, technology, and processes. The process of KM involves accessing â€Å"knowledge from outside sources, then embedding and storing knowledge in the business processes, products and services.† These are then translated to the databases and documents,

The Failure of the Peace Process in the Middle East Essay

The Failure of the Peace Process in the Middle East - Essay Example   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Amongst these were associates of the Palestinian government, as well as Yaseer Arafat himself, presenting their pity to the Engineer’s relatives. The Israeli officers were in touch with the Palestinian government bureaucrats, earlier to the assault and they in fact talked to one another regarding whether or not to go further on with this intended murder. Enderlin writes that Shimon Peres and his consultants thought that it would be excessively dangerous from a political point of view to miss the act, since if Ayyash were capable to accomplish the suicide bombing earlier than the future elections the opponent leader, would be proficient to articulate that they did not do something when they had the opportunity.  Ayyash murder was the start of a series of proceedings that would eventually direct to the conclusion of the Oslo agreements. Next to the huge interment, Hamas hit back in a sequence of vicious suicide bombings in Jerusalem. Under the situation, i t made logic for the Israeli community to choose Benyamin Netanyahu who assured the safety that they so desired. This is right. Right away next to Rabin’s murder, the Left in Israel was very sturdy and the suicide bombings did harm them at the ballots. Though, it was not an exact bombing only that directs to Peres overwhelm. One of the most amazing and disastrous features about Enderlin’s story is just how slam Barak and Arafat’s cooperation groups had come to fundamentally finalize an contracts.... Eventually, Enderlin writes that Shimon Peres and his consultants thought that it would be excessively dangerous from a political point of view to miss the act, since if Ayyash were capable to accomplish the suicide bombing earlier than the future elections, Benyamin Netanyahu, the opponent leader, would be proficient to articulate that they did not do something when they had the opportunity. Ayyash murder was the start of a series of proceedings that would eventually direct to the conclusion of the Oslo agreements. Next to the huge interment, Hamas hit back in a sequence of vicious suicide bombings in Jerusalem. Under the situation, it made logic for the Israeli community to choose Benyamin Netanyahu who assured the safety that they so desired. This is, in some way, right. Right away next to Rabin's murder, the Left in Israel was very sturdy and the suicide bombings did harm them at the ballots. Though, it was not an exact bombing only that directs to Peres overwhelm. The whole Arab-Israeli society, who would have with no hesitation chosen Peres, boycotted the elections in dispute of the horrifying disaster at Kfar Kana, where approximately 100 Lebanese inhabitants passed away owing to the disgusting carelessness of the Israeli armed forces.One of the most amazing and disastrous features about Enderlin's story is just how slam Barak and Arafat's cooperation groups had c ome to fundamentally finalize an contracts. Shattered Dreams the Failure of the Peace Process in the Middle East by Charles Enderlin 3 All of the things were in its place, President Clinton, who was on his way away of workplace,

Boeing and airbus Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Boeing and airbus - Research Paper Example The Boeing 787 series was grounded after this episode in the United States. All these incidences concerned the battery and the airplane’s electrical components. It is also reported that the airplane has two major issues within the first 52,000 of flight while it was supposed to last for up to 10 million flight hours without any problems. The solution to this problem would be to change the battery so that it would be able to contain fires better and thus become more efficient and work for longer periods. However, the causes of the battery failures are still not known and therefore the solutions given may not cover the entire problem. Therefore, as the CEO of the company, there is a need to find out the cause of the failure of the batteries in order to find suitable solutions to the existing problem (Harress). The competitors of the Boeing include the airbus and Lockheed martin. The airbus is one of the biggest passenger airplanes known worldwide. However, it has some issues that need to be dealt with. For instance, one major problem of the airbus is its sensitive warning system. The software is not able to handle manageable tolerances and, therefore, the system can be set off even with very minor problems in the aircraft. The warnings and alarms can set off an alert and even shut down a well-functioning plane (Flight Global). There is a need for the algorithm to be set straight so that it is less sensitive and to prevent further breakdown of the airbus. The issue of false alarms has made the plane unreliable and therefore many passengers avoiding it. The rest of the citizens may not be in a position to understand the defects and react accordingly and thus the loss of confidence among many customers. There is a need to come up with a better software to deal with the false alarms and to make the airplane more

Deficit spending Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Deficit spending - Research Paper Example Government spending spurs economic growth in the country. When we focus on the long run, this is basically a positive macroeconomic effect. Government borrowing from other countries is used to finance government projects. This leads to increase in national infrastructure and stocks. This promotes the growth of the country in the long-run period. Currently, the federal government is investing heavily in education and health sectors. They can be the best gainers with the expected increased government borrowing. All these benefits associated with deficit spending can be easily estimated through analysis on cost benefit (McConnell, 1996). Most of the Keynesian economists attribute deficit as an appropriate tool for managing the aggregate demand levels in the country. This is because increased borrowing from other countries is an economic stimulus to demand in the country. This helps to stabilize the aggregate demand. However, these economists argue that the federal government should use and implement fiscal policies to contain. Besides this, managed levels of demand helps to sustain economic growth and reduce the general level of unemployment in the country. Deficit spending is financed through public borrowing. This leads to increase in public debt which is later financed through the revenues collected by the federal government later in future. This is a burden to the public because it implicates negatively to their lives. In most cases, taxes are raised on basic commodities for the federal government to raise revenue to cater for this. Increase in government borrowing leads to increase in public debt in the economy. From an economist point of view, a larger public debt results into high interest levels. Hence, the citizens of that particular country will be required to pay higher taxes in order to finance this debt in long term. Public debt is mostly financed through taxes

Mcdonalds recommendations for a better future Essay

Mcdonalds recommendations for a better future - Essay Example The company has a great emphasis on customer and employee satisfaction; it is also very innovative with new trends and tastes being introduced in new products. Despite the company’s success, it is faced with intense competition from other food chains such as KFC and Burger King. Therefore, it is necessary to McDonalds’ leaders to adjust and improve the organization in several areas as a way of surviving this intense competition in the future. The company should apply efficient reward and performance practices so as to attract result driven professionals in the company who can succeed in performance-based environment. This technique is a crucial employee motivator. Several ways of employee motivation include; giving them bonus payments, recognizing hardworking employees and giving them authority. McDonalds should consider giving employees bonus packages as per their performance. Continental Airlines introduced a bonus incentive package where employees would receive $65 monthly for ensure on time flight operations, and it has improved its services. An effective reward management system instills a sense of ownership to the employees as they tend to focus on job improvement in the company. One disadvantage of the strategy is that the employees can be de-motivated if the goals set to receive a bonus are too hard to achieve (Puffer 1999). Being a multinational company, McDonalds should use a decentralized organizational structure as opposed to a centralized structure to allow managers make appropriate and pragmatic decisions for their outlets contextually. This is because restaurants in different countries might not be faced with similar challenges. Decentralized decision-making allows a subsidiary company to make its decisions to solve local problems better than the parent company making decisions for a business in the foreign country. The disadvantage with decentralized decision-making is that if a wrong

Journal 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Journal 3 - Essay Example Instead of telling us what we needed in the bag, the teacher gave us suggestions about what we might need and invited us to come up with ideas for what we would like to pack. After we finished, we discussed why we chose the items we did. I selected this activity because it gives a good example of how my teacher performed more of a helper/ mentor role with us, rather than a strict lecturer role. Due to her encouraging way of doing the lesson , there were fewer arguments than there would have been if she had required all of the students to put a predetermined list of items into the suitcase. The teacher implemented Standard 1. Promoting Child Development and Learning. She also implemented Standard 5. Using Content Knowledge to Build Meaningful Curriculum. I learned that being a helper or a mentor to children can be a smoother and more effective way to assist in the learning process of children. If I were to do this activity with my children, I would discuss with them before we began about what they might place in their suitcases. I would still discuss why the children chose the items that they did at the end of the activity. That really promoted some deeper thinking from the students in my

Global Organizations and Nation States Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Global Organizations and Nation States - Essay Example This essay explores the main part of the neoliberal economic ideology, which forces these countries to follow free-market policies, reduce government intervention, privatization and decreasing the size of the public sector, liberalization, reducing trade barriers, elimination of subsidies, reduced protection of the domestic industries, currency devaluation, and others. Despite the fact that these policies have appeared to be working for many developed countries, evidence shows that it has been disastrous for the poor and third world countries, which actually seek a loan from IMF and World Bank. Critics of these international organizations believe that these organizations are actually Washington controlled and headed by the developed countries of the world. Important here to note is that the United States and other European countries ran out of their resources decades ago. Furthermore, their domestic markets are past the point of saturation and low population growth rates mean that th eir dream for aggressive growth cannot be fulfilled. The only possible way in which they could sustain or even continue their growth is by trying to exploit the resources of the third world countries, which are rich in natural resources but do not have the tools and the expertise to make use of them. International organizations such as International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organization was the clear answer. These organizations, headed and controlled by a few developed countries, allow them to force the third world and underdeveloped countries of the world to open their markets, deprotect their industries, and reduce the government intervention. Important here to note is that in case of a majority of the African and South Asian countries, these policies have never worked.

Is Love Worth Preserving Essay Example for Free

Is Love Worth Preserving Essay Is love Worth Preserving Love is a universal feeling or emotion and every human on earth throughout history has experienced in one form or the other. Many plays, drama or stories are surrounded by betrayal, hurt; pain, trials, triumphs, wars, passion, forgiveness, commitment and romance. However In the play â€Å"Sakuntala and The Ring of Recollection† this is a perfect example of what seems to be a more dramatic courtship tragedy. The story portrays romance between king Dusyanta and a sages daughter Sakuntala both strive to meet and reconcile the conflicting objectives of Indian life; the struggle to balance the need for power and hierarchy with undeniable feelings of passion. King Dusyanta while hunting in forest happens meet the most perfect and organic of all women his ever seen; Sakuntala a beautiful young lady living in a hermitage in the forest. King Dusyanta overwhelmed with Feelings and love, so strong that he desired sakuntala as a wife immediately ignoring his royal duties as king. The king courts her and marries her in a simple ceremony witnessed only by sakuntala’s friends. The king promised to return by offering a ring to signify his commitment. Then Dusyanta leaves for his capital to attend to his royal duties, with the understanding that he will soon return to and take Sakuntala with him for a proper ceremony. Unfortunately, Sakuntala, lost in thoughts of king Dusyanta fails to take notice of Sage Durvasa who comes visiting the hermitage. Angered by this, Durvasa puts a curse on sakuntala that the person she is thinking about will forget her completely. The only remedy to make Dusyanta remember Sakuntala and their marriage is to show him the ring that he had given to Sakuntala. Sakuntala now must go to Dusyanta and show him the ring so that he will again remember her. But unfortunately the ring she is carrying with her fall into a river on her way to Dusyanta and cannot be retrieved. Thus when Sakuntala faces Dusyanta he is unable to recall her. All her pleadings with Dusyanta and efforts to remind him are ineffective in bringing back memories of his commitment. Sakuntala has no alternative but to return. By series of chances the ring that fell in river was found by a fisherman and then presented to Dusyanta, through these he remembers all the past event forgotten. But it is too late by then. Dusyanta is not able to find Sakuntala, who has moved to some other place and has given birth in the meantime to a son, who is named Bharat. Many years later when Bharat is still a child, Dusyanta happens to firs see Bharat playing with a lion cob and then meets Sakuntala and reunited Sakuntala ring of recollection presents the audience with two characters who begin as reasonably autonomous beings but who gradually compromise aspects of their identities in order to complement one another. In doing so, the author suggests that every individual is incomplete without a partner, and he depicts the ideal male and female characters during Indias classical age. Works Cited David, Damrosch, and David L. Pike. The longman Anthopology of world literature, volume A; Sakuntala and the Ring of Recollection. The Ancient world, second edition.

Investments Essay Example for Free

Investments Essay Checking account is a type of investment to manage personal finances that has both advantages and disadvantages. The primary advantages of checking are to save fees charged by storefronts that offer check cashing services and easy accessibility to funds by writing on checks compared to carrying cash. The disadvantages of checking accounts are overdraft fees when the balance is less than the maintaining balance and less security than ATM cards since it only requires a signature. Money market account offers advantages to account holders to hold emergency funds and money for periodic payments. A higher rate of interest is also offered compared to other types of accounts. Its disadvantages are limited transactions to only 3 deposits and 3 withdrawals every month; potential investment loss since only $250,000 is insured by FDIC; unguaranteed interest rate due to fluctuation; risk of spontaneous spending due to easy accessibility; and risk of withdrawing funds leading to a minimum balance especially when the account is tied to a checking account. Passbook savings account offers the advantages of safety as covered by U. S. federal government insurance companies (FDIC and NCUSIF); immediate access to funds based on the needs of the account holder; and it offers a fairly small interest. Its disadvantages are the limitation on federal insurance of a maximum of $250,000 coverage and the lowest interest rate of passbook accounts compared to all types of savings account. The interest also is subjected to tax returns for the depositor. Certificate of deposits additionally has advantages and disadvantages. It offers flexibility of the terms starting at three months up to five years or more. It means the longer the term, the higher interest rate the depositor will receive at the end of the term. Another advantage is the grace period it offers. Depositors are given commonly a seven-day period to come to a decision whether to extend the term or not. Its disadvantages are the interest rate is fixed, penalty fees when the deposit is withdrawn before maturity date, and automatic rollover when the depositor missed to make a decision on or before the grace period.

The Material And Process Requirements For Driving Shaft Engineering Essay

The Material And Process Requirements For Driving Shaft Engineering Essay Based on my research, a drive shaft, driving shaft or propeller shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting torque and rotation that usually used to connect other components of a drive train that cannot be connected directly because of distance or the need to allow for relative movement between them. Besides that, drive shafts carrying an important role as carrier of torque in driveline application. They are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference between the input torque and the load. Therefore, they must be strong enough to bear the stress, whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia. Drive shafts frequently incorporate one or more universal joints or jaw couplings, and sometimes a splinted join or prismatic join to allow for variations in the alignment and distance between the driving and driven components Based on the functions that has been discussed in previous, I know that the material of drive shaft must be strong enough to bear the stress, light weight which able to reduce the overall automobile weight and thus, increase their inertia at the same time. For the mechanical properties that required for drive shaft including the ability to minimize the losses in transmission, high tensile strength material, high torsional strength and light weight. Therefore, I would like to suggest that polymer matrix composite is more suitable as a chosen material that can be apply in driveline application. 1.1 Design Factors In the progress of my research in driveline application, I found out that marketing considerations are paramount in the motor car industry. There are two factors make this particular application attractive to the industry. On the one hand, vehicles are solid in the market place on claims of increased comfort, luxury and smoothness of operation. On the other hand, the manufacturer is also seeking to provide the maximum performance with the minimum fuel usage at the same time. Thus, usually these two requirements are conflicting. For example, a decrease in body panel thickness reduces mass and so increases performance and fuel efficiency, but this change also increases internal noise. Therefore, some automobile industry has spend much modal in doing research and recently, they have an idea which using carbon fiber (polymer matrix composite) in drive shafts which able to contributes to achieving both aims simultaneously. The factors to be optimized in a shaft after meeting the basic operating requirements just outlined is mass, smoothness of ride and cost. This is because reducing mass is important: To improve performance of vehicle and reduce fuel consumption. To reduce un-sprung mass and so improve vehicle handling and ride. To reduce the residual out of balance forces from rotating parts and so further improve smoothness in use. 2.0 Material Selection Based on the research of different type of material of drive shaft or propeller shaft in driveline application, I have chosen polymer matrix composite as the material selection in driveline application. 2.1 Introduction to Polymer Matrix Composite Polymer Matrix Composite is the material consisting of polymer matrix combined with a fibrous reinforcing dispersed phase. Polymer matrix composites are very popular due to their low cost and simple fabrication methods. Use of non-reinforced polymers as structure materials is limited by low level of their mechanical properties such as tensile strength of one of the strongest polymers (epoxy resin) is 20000 psi (140 Mpa). In addition to relatively low strength, polymer materials posses low impact resistance as well. Besides that, the reinforcement tends to be stiffer and stronger than the matrix providing stiffness and strength. Reinforcement is laid in a particular direction, within the matrix, so that the resulting material will have different properties in different directions. As example, composites have anisotropic properties. This characteristic is exploited to optimize the design and provide high mechanical performance where it is needed. 2.2 Design of a Composites Shaft According to A.W. Thompson from Bristol Composite Materials Engineering Ltd, He has mentioned the two typical shafts side by side, one made in steel and the other in composites as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 Composite Drive Shaft (Upper) with Steel Shaft The illustration shows the simplicity of the design made possible by carbon fiber. The combination of high stiffness and low density in the composite enables a longer shaft to be made without reaching a critical whirling speed. The whirling speed of a rotating shaft is the speed at which it becomes unstable and defluxions occurs normal to the axis of rotation. The advantage in whirling speed is such as to enable most two piece steel shaft to be replaced with a single composite part. Besides that, weight and cost are reduced by dispensing with the central universal joint and the associated bearing. Moreover, N.V.H (Noise, Vibration and Harshness) factors are improved by the consequent isolation of the passenger compartment from drive line vibration following deletion of the centre bearing from underneath the drivers seat. Further reductions in N.V.H are possible by modification to the orientations of the fibres in the properller shaft tube, which effect longitudinal and radial stiffness. 2.3 Reason Selecting Polymer Matrix Composite as Material in Driveline Application The basic attraction of polymer matrix composite materials for driveshaft application is that they make it possible to increase the shaft length, which is otherwise constrained by bending resonance. For many vehicles, a one piece composite shaft may replace a two piece steel shaft which simplifies both the shaft and installation in the vehicle. Besides that, by using fibre reinforced composites, it is possible to arrange the fibre orientations in the tube so that the bending modulus has a high value (above 100Gpa) whilst the specific gravity is low (below 1.6). This leads to a favourable specific bending modulus and an enhanced critical speed as well. Figure 2 Critical Speeds for Automotive Propshaft According to A.W. Thompson from Bristol Composite Materials Engineering Ltd, the relationship between shaft length and critical speed for tubes suitable for automotive propshaft is illustrated in Figure 2. The graph shows that, for a particular application where a critical speed of 8000 rev/min is acceptable, the longest shaft possible out of steel is 1250 mm whereas a composite shaft of 1650 mm could be achieved. Thus, the maximum length for either shaft is reduced depending on the compliance of the end connections. For acceptable NVH (Noise, Vibration and Harshness), there must also be an adequate margin between vibration drivers and bending resonance of the shaft. Nevertheless, it is generally true that a composite shaft can be made longer than a steel shaft and that for automotive platforms where a two-piece steel shaft with centre support bearing is specified a one-piece composite shaft may be acceptable. This fundamental material property advantage is a powerful technical driver for composite shafts, and substantial weight savings can be achieved. One-piece shafts also simplify the design and engineering of the vehicle floor pan. Therefore, based on explanation above, it is obviously that I have chosen carbon fiber composite (one type of the polymer matrix composite) as the material for drive shaft and further material properties will be discuss in detail later as well. 2.3.1 Material Property of Carbon Fiber Composite (Polymer Matrix Composite) According to Core Composites, Division of ROM Development Corporations research, the material properties of Carbon Fiber Composite are as below: Features Benefits Extremely High Stiffness With a variety of modulus available from standard 33 msi to ultra high modulus pitch over 125 msi carbon fiber has the highest specific modulus of all the commercial reinforcing fibers. High Tensile Strength The strongest of all commercial reinforcing fibers in tension. Especially good for the tension skin on composite laminates. Excellent Corrosion Resistance Used in reinforcing concrete, carbon has good alkaline resistance as well as resistance to salt water and many other chemical environments. Excellent Fatigue Properties Used as a primary reinforcement for fatigue prone products such as helicopter and wind turbine blades as well as offshore power and driveline application. Excellent Compression Properties Proper fiber sizing for the resin matrix selected can yield impressive compressive properties but this quality can be quite difficult to measure with standard ASTM test methods and careful test specimen preparation is critical to achieve accurate result. Low Coefficient of Linear Expansion Carbon is a good tooling reinforcement for molds that will see temperature and where parts need tight dimensional stability. 2.3.2 Composite Shaft Performance According to the research that done by Tetsuyuki Kyono, Composites Development Center, Toray Composites (America), Inc. about the carbon fiber composites applications for auto industries, they have mentioned about carbon fiber composite drive shaft having crush worthiness. Crash load generated during head collision can be absorbed by newly developed joining technology with no adhesive between carbon fiber composite tube and steel adapter. This technology can add safety value to passenger cars in addition such as weight and noise reductions. Therefore, the performance data of the composite shaft should be take consideration as one of the main section in choosing the best material to apply in driveline application. Thus, they have evaluated torque carrying capability as index of shaft performance. One of typical data has been shown in Figure 3. It is noted composite drive shaft performed as expected up to 150à ¢- ¦C at static torsional test and showed much better fatigue resistance than steel system shown as target. Figure 3 Torsional Strength of Drive Shaft for 2000 Nm Class In Figure 4, residual torque carrying capabilities after exposure to various environments are shown in percentage compare with control data. As shown below has shown the reduction in performance of composite drive shaft is very minimal. Figure 4 Residual Torsional Strength (%) after Environmental Testing 2.3.3 Proving Test After the obvious laboratory tests above to show static strength and stiffness, fatigues tests are important as well. Carbon fibre has an excellent performance in fatigue and glass fibre is as good as most metals. A composite shaft has withstood 106 cycles of maximum torque as compared with the 104 cycles typically required of a steel shaft. Shafts were fitted to cars to gain road experience and demonstrate satisfactory operations. Such testing demonstrates that the component really works and meets all the criteria required. In this application, for instance, road use showed that: Temperature resistance to underbody environment was satisfactory Corrosion resistance (example: to salt spray was not a problem) Creep loading resistance was adequate Resistance to flying stone damage was not a problem End attachment strength was adequate Shock load capability was adequate Based on the proving test that has been done by A.W.Thompson, we knew that polymer matrix composites is suitable to be taken as material in driveline application such as making drive shaft or propeller shaft as well due to its attractive material properties and more affordable cost as well if compare with others material such as steel. 2.3.4 Crash Performance of Composite Propshafts According to Dr Andrew Pollard, GKN Technology, Wolverhampton, UK, he stat that increasing public interest in safe vehicles is encouraging car manufacturers and their suppliers to design components and systems that will perform well in a crash (2). The propeller shaft in rear- and fourwheel- drive cars is good example of this. Figure 5 Behaviour of Propeller Shafts in Frontal Crash In a frontal crash, the propeller shaft transmits forces from the engine/gearbox unit to the rear axle. Many vehicles today have a two-piece propeller shaft that can buckle at the centre bearing in any direction, depending on the joint position at impact. It is therefore virtually impossible to predict the axial force and the energy absorbed by the shaft in a crash. This is illustrated in Figure 5, contrasted with the behavior of a propeller shaft with a defined axial collapse mode. The target for crash-optimized propeller shafts is to achieve a defined behavior of axial force and displacement during an impact and consequently controlled energy absorption as shown in Figure 5. 3.0 Manufacturing Process of Carbon Fiber The process for making carbon fibers is part chemical and part mechanical. The precursor is drawn into long strands or fibers and then heated to a very high temperature with-out allowing it to come in contact with oxygen. Without oxygen, the fiber cannot burn. Instead, the high temperature causes the atoms in the fiber to vibrate violently until most of the non-carbon atoms are expelled. This process is called carbonization and leaves a fiber composed of long, and tightly. The fibers are coated to protect them from damage during winding or weaving. The coated fibers are wound onto cylinders called bobbins. The fibers are coated to protect them from damage during winding or weaving. The coated fibers are wound onto cylinders called bobbins. Moreover, the inter-locked chains of carbon atoms with only a few non-carbon atoms remaining. Here is a typical sequence of operations used to form carbon fibers from polyacrylonitrile. 3.1 Spinning First: Acrylonitrile plastic powder is mixed with another plastic, like methyl acrylate or methyl methacrylate, and is reacted with a catalyst in a conventional suspension or solution polymerization process to form a polyacrylonitrile plastic. Second: The plastic is then spun into fibers using one of several different methods. In some methods, the plastic is mixed with certain chemicals and pumped through tiny jets into a chemical bath or quench chamber where the plastic coagulates and solidifies into fibers. This is similar to the process used to form polyacrylic textile fibers. In other methods, the plastic mixture is heated and pumped through tiny jets into a chamber where the solvents evaporate, leaving a solid fiber. The spinning step is important because the internal atomic structure of the fiber is formed during this process. Third: The fibers are then washed and stretched to the desired fiber diameter. The stretching helps align the molecules within the fiber and provide the basis for the formation of the tightly bonded carbon crystals after carbonization. 3.2 Stabilizing Forth: Before the fibers are carbonized, they need to be chemically altered to convert their linear atomic bonding to a more thermally stable ladder bonding. This is accomplished by heating the fibers in air to about 390-590 ° F (200-300 ° C) for 30-120 minutes. This causes the fibers to pick up oxygen molecules from the air and rearrange their atomic bonding pattern. The stabilizing chemical reactions are complex and involve several steps, some of which occur simultaneously. They also generate their own heat, which must be controlled to avoid overheating the fibers. Commercially, the stabilization process uses a variety of equipment and techniques. In some processes, the fibers are drawn through a series of heated chambers. In others, the fibers pass over hot rollers and through beds of loose materials held in suspension by a flow of hot air. Some processes use heated air mixed with certain gases that chemically accelerate the stabilization. 3.3 Carbonizing Fifth: Once the fibers are stabilized, they are heated to a temperature of about 1,830-5,500 ° F (1,000-3,000 ° C) for several minutes in a furnace filled with a gas mixture that does not contain oxygen. The lack of oxygen prevents the fibers from burning in the very high temperatures. The gas pressure inside the furnace is kept higher than the outside air pressure and the points where the fibers enter and exit the furnace are sealed to keep oxygen from entering. As the fibers are heated, they begin to lose their non-carbon atoms, plus a few carbon atoms, in the form of various gases including water vapor, ammonia, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, and others. As the non-carbon atoms are expelled, the remaining carbon atoms form tightly bonded carbon crystals that are aligned more or less parallel to the long axis of the fiber. In some processes, two furnaces operating at two different temperatures are used to better control the rate de heating during carboniza tion. 3.4 Treating the Surface Sixth: After carbonizing, the fibers have a surface that does not bond well with the epoxies and other materials used in composite materials. To give the fibers better bonding properties, their surface is slightly oxidized. The addition of oxygen atoms to the surface provides better chemical bonding properties and also etches and roughens the surface for better mechanical bonding properties. Oxidation can be achieved by immersing the fibers in various gases such as air, carbon dioxide, or ozone; or in various liquids such as sodium hypochlorite or nitric acid. The fibers can also be coated electrolytically by making the fibers the positive terminal in a bath filled with various electrically conductive materials. The surface treatment process must be carefully controlled to avoid forming tiny surface defects, such as pits, which could cause fiber failure. 3.5 Sizing Seventh: After the surface treatment, the fibers are coated to protect them from damage during winding or weaving. This process is called sizing. Coating materials are chosen to be compatible with the adhesive used to form composite materials. Typical coating materials include epoxy, polyester, nylon, urethane, and others. Eight: The coated fibers are wound onto cylinders called bobbins. The bobbins are loaded into a spinning machine and the fibers are twisted into yarns of various sizes. 3.6 Quality Control The very small size of carbon fibers does not allow visual inspection as a quality control method. Instead, producing consistent precursor fibers and closely controlling the manufacturing process used to turn them into carbon fibers controls the quality. Process variables such as time, temperature, gas flow, and chemical composition are closely monitored during each stage of the production. The carbon fibers, as well as the finished composite materials, are also subject to rigorous testing. Common fiber tests include density, strength, amount of sizing, and others. In 1990, the Suppliers of Advanced Composite Materials Association established standards for carbon fiber testing methods, which are now used throughout the industry. 3.7 Health and Safety Concerns There are three areas of concern in the production and handling of carbon fibers: dust inhalation, skin irritation, and the effect of fibers on electrical equipment. During processing, pieces of carbon fibers can break off and circulate in the air in the form of a fine dust. Industrial health studies have shown that, unlike some asbestos fibers, carbon fibers are too large to be a health hazard when inhaled. They can be an irritant, however, and people working in the area should wear protective masks. The carbon fibers can also cause skin irritation, especially on the back of hands and wrists. Protective clothing or the use of barrier skin creams is recommended for people in an area where carbon fiber dust is present. The sizing materials used to coat the fibers often contain chemicals that can cause severe skin reactions, which also requires protection. In addition to being strong, carbon fibers are also good conductors of electricity. As a result, carbon fiber dust can cause arcing and shorts in electrical equipment. If electrical equipment cannot be relocated from the area where carbon dust is present, the equipment is sealed in a cabinet or other enclosure. 4.0 Fabrication Process of Driveshaft by using Polymer Matrix Composite According to the project research that done by Alex Santiago from Texas AM University Kingsville, he has discussed the fabrication process of drive shaft by using polymer matrix composite which is carbon fiber as main material. As reference, the fabrication process by Alex has been taken for me to understand the hand make drive shaft by using carbon fiber in real life. Thus, the following fabrication process is belonging to Alex from Texas University which is worth to be taken as references in this topic discussion. There are several things to consider when picking a fabrication method. Time is a major consideration. There is little time for fabrication, so the fabrication process has to be quick. The fiber has to be laid at specific angles to give the shaft certain characteristics. The weave patterns have to be tight and compact. Resin has to be applied evenly. The shaft has to be wound in a way such that the yokes can be easily attached. The easiest fabrication method for creating a hollow tube is filament winding. Filament winding is an automated process in which a filamentary yarn in the form of tow is wetted by resin and uniformly and regularly wound about a rotating mandrel. The filament winder can be programmed to create specific and tightly wound patterns. To create a composite part on the winder, a winding pattern is needed, along with a mandrel, mold release, fiber, resin and hardener, a way to apply even pressure to the part and a curing procedure. The wind patterns were determined by using Laminate Design software created by Dr. Larry Peel. After entering mechanical properties for the resin and tow, different wind angles and layers were tried in the Laminate Design software until the driveshaft had the desired characteristics. Table 1 gives the wind angle and its purpose. The tow, resin and hardener, and adhesive are the most critical elements of the shaft. Each structural component must be carefully selected so that the shaft has good mechanical properties. The tow which was used in the Laminate Design Software calculations was chosen because it is strong, light weight, and aerospace quality carbon fiber. Fiber used by the aerospace, although expensive, is rigorously quality controlled. It was decided that this fiber would be uniform, therefore giving the driveshaft uniform properties. The resin and hardener were chosen for several reasons. First, the resin is tough. The resin also has a high viscosity. High viscosity is desired because, with the wet winding process, is easier to control the amount of resin being applied to the tow. Wet winding will be discussed further in the process section. Another reason for choosing this resin is its elongation at break. At 6% elongation at break, it is known that the resin will not be too brittle and that the wound shaft will have some flex for absorbing the shock between shifting gears. Finally this resin was chosen because of its high pot life. After mixing the resin and hardener, there is a little over two hours before it begins to gel. This is enough time to wind the entire shaft before the resin sets up. The adhesive was chosen for a few reasons. Foremost, the adhesive also met the criteria for high tensile lap shear strength at room and elevated temperatures. At room temperature the adhesive has lap shear strength of 4,200 psi. At 250 F the lap shear strength is 2,300 psi. Also, the adhesive is aerospace grade, ensuring high quality. Table 1 Wind Angles 4.1 Mandrels In order to produce the mandrel of a driveshaft, several derivations should have gone through. Mandrels made of cardboard tubing and solid shafts were considered. These ideas were never fabricated because it would be hard to remove the mandrel from the wound tube. The resin would cause the cardboard mandrel to stick to the shaft making it impossible to remove. A solid shaft of steel or aluminum would be heavy, and expensive to create. 4.1.1 Mandrel 1 Firstly, it was decided to create a mandrel made of steel muffler tubing which was split with a plasma cutter into four parts along its length. The idea was to wind the shaft, let it cure, then dismantle the mandrel and remove the tube. Next, two pieces machined out of steel were created and attached to the muffler tubing which allows the mandrel to be spun in the filament winder. One end is chucked into the winder the other end has a live center which spins on a center point. This mandrel did not work because the mandrel pieces could not be bolted to the machined ends in a way that they were square. This was due to the fact that the muffler tubing is cold rolled which means it is pre-stressed. Once the tubing was split into four pieces, each piece bowed. 4.1.2 Mandrel 2 A second mandrel was created using muffler tubing which was split into two pieces. This mandrel was square when bolted into place. To keep the tension of the fiber from pulling the gap in the mandrel closed, three round, wooden pucks were evenly spaced through the center of the mandrel. The second mandrel was used to create a practice drive shaft. The pucks were evenly spaced through the center of the mandrel. Shrink wrap tape, which shrinks and applies pressure when heated, is wrapped around the mandrel over the areas where the pucks are. The tape applies pressure and keeps the pucks in an upright position as shown in Figure 6. Once the pucks were set in place, a few dry runs were made with no resin. One pass of each fiber angle was wound. Figure 6: Wooden Puck in Mandrel Once the winding began, it became obvious that there was not enough turn around room. When winding a composite part, there are four defined areas on the part. The entire part consists of the head, the turn around, the useable shaft, and the tail. The winding layout is shown in Figure 6. The wind angle is the angle the fiber makes with the center line of the mandrel. The 45 degree and 15 degree wind angles did not have enough friction to stick to the mandrel in the turnaround areas. The fiber began to slip and bunch up, causing misalignment in the pattern. Figure 6: Winding Layout This created a new problem. To keep the fiber from slipping, the turnaround area needed to be lengthened. The mandrel at its current length just fits in the curing oven, making it impossible to lengthen the mandrel. To alleviate this problem, two pieces of pipe, about one foot long each, were threaded into the ends of the machined pieces as shown in Figure 7. Adding the extensions made more turn around area. These threaded pieces can be removed once the shaft is wound and the resin sets up. When the extensions are removed the mandrel can easily be placed in the oven to finish curing. Figure 7 Mandrel Extensions The wind patterns were tested again with the extended turn around room. The extensions and the change in diameter kept the fiber from slipping, and allowed for full uniform coverage by the fiber. The test patterns were removed, and resin and hardener were mixed and poured into the resin bath to start a practice shaft. The resin bath applies resin to the fiber before it is wound about the mandrel. The resin bath can be seen in Figure 8. A practice shaft was wound using the setup shown in Table 2. A practice shaft was wound for a few reasons. The practice shaft allowed testing of the wind patterns with the resin and the fiber together. Curing temperature and time could be observed. Dismantling the shaft can be attempted, and the shaft can be inspected for proper resin wet out, roundness, and overall strength. Table 2 Practice Shaft Wind Pattern Setup Figure 8 Resin Bath This was a very difficult process. First, the material that wrapped over the end caps had to be cut back in order to expose the bolts holding it to the mandrel. Once this was accomplished we began removing the bolts. Resin had seeped into the threads of some of the bolts causing them to stick. The head of one bolt was twisted off trying to get it out. This bolt was machined out. Once the caps were removed the shaft did not collapse as expected. The gap were the mandrel had been split had filled in with resin. A tubing cutter was used to cut the shaft into sections and then it was split in half with a band saw. A 2 foot piece was spared and slid off the shaft. The ridge left inside the shaft was 0.125 inches deep. This created a stress riser that severely reduced the integrity of the shaft. It was obvious that this mandrel was not going to work. 4.1.3 Mandrels 3 Improving upon the mistakes on the previous mandrels, a new, one piece, mandrel was made from aluminum tubing. The tubing maintained a 2.75 inch OD and was readily available. A 16 gauge 2.75 OD tube was purchased. The tubing is normally made for turbo charger inlet ducting. A test piece was cut from the tube to be used for testing. The test piece was wet sanded with 2000 grit sandpaper. A silicone mold release compound was applied to the test shaft. 90 ° test patterns were wound onto the piece and cured at 250 °F for 15 hours. We used a higher curing temperature in order to expand the aluminum mandrel while compacting the fiber. After curing was complete, we then placed the test mandrel in the deep freeze that was Ãâ€" ¾20 °F in order to shrink the aluminum tube. The test mandrel was removed from the freezer. The tube was impacted onto a block of wood while holding the fiber. The mandrel came out with no difficulty. This test was successful. The third mandrel was fitted to the end caps. The end caps were then bolted to the mandrel. Figure 9 shows the final mandrel. Figure 9 Final Mandrel of Driveshaft 5.0 Conclusion As conclusion, the potential for carbon fibre composites (one type of polymer matrix composite) in automotive drive shafts as a means of achieving substantial weight reduction has long been recognized and has been demonstrated in small volume since 1988. Finally, I think that polymer matrix composites is the most suitable materials which can applied in driveline application and engineers should find cost effective applications on it to bring this applications to fruitful use in future.