Information Management Systems That Support Organizations

Information Management Systems That Support Organizations ABSTRACT â€Å"An information system can be defined as a set of interrelated components that collect (or retrieve), process, store, and distribute information to support decision making, coordination, and control in an organisation. In addition to supporting decision making, coordination and control, information systems may also help managers and workers analyse problems visualise complex subjects, and create new products† (Laudon Laudon, 2001) 1. Introduction In order for an organisation to fully appreciate the information systems available to them they must appreciate the value of information available. Information Technology and Information Management have experienced tremendous growth. Information is available everywhere and anytime. The Internet has certainly devalued information, before its creation many organisations benefited from gathering, sorting and selling information to stakeholders in need information to grow their business. When printed information is turned into digital information the price drops. Take for example newspapers. It is the norm that Newspapers today publishes part of its information on the Newspapers website for free, if you want to view the rest of the articles you must pay for it at a premium. Meta information providers such as Google pick up this digital information and provide it free over the internet. The value of the information to the providers is obviously monetary but to the consumer of these online products it is ease of access and less time consuming to purchase online information. Although much of information provided is considered to be free, we do pay the internet provider, and the internet provider charges a third party for access to the information. The internet today has turned into the largest library in the world. In the past students when looking for information for assignments, research projects and exams gathered information from books, newspapers and research journals. The internet has made attaining information uncomplicated. 1.1 The Value of Information to the Organisation It does not matter what type of business you are running whether it be a manufacturing business or providing a service the vital ingredient for any organisation is information. It is an organisation most vital asset. Information enables us to determine the need to create new products and services. â€Å"Information tells us to move into new markets or to withdraw from other markets. Without information, the goods do not get made, the orders are not placed, the materials are not procured, the shipments are not delivered, the customers are not billed, and the business cannot survive.† www.referenceforbusiness.com [2] 2. Information Management Systems An Information System (IS) is more than hardware or software. The most important components of the system are the people who design it, maintain it, and use it. While the overall system must meet various needs in terms of power and performance, it must also be functional for the organisations employees. Regardless which Information System an organisation chooses it is a major investment for any firm in todays business environment. A poorly chosen or designed Information System can become an impediment to an organisation in attaining its goals. If the Information system if not capable of collecting, storing and transferring vital information for the business then the outcome can be catastrophic. Customers of the business may be discontented or worse lost. Valuable revenue may be lost due to increased overheads and the business may lose desired business direction due to an ineffective Information System. 2.1 Information Management Challenges It may be essential to design different systems aimed at different levels of the organisation, firms are likely to find rewards in integrating systems, although integrating systems for different levels to freely exchange information can be complicated and expensive. Organisations need to decide what level of systems integration is required and how much it is going to cost. Sustaining a competitive advantage does not necessarily last long. Competitors can reproduce a competitors strategic information management system. Changing market conditions, changes in what the consumer wants today and changes in the business environment all add to the loss of competitive advantage within an organisation if previous standards are not maintained. Updated technology from rival companies can lead to your organisation losing its competitive advantage. Operational Level Systems Knowledge Level Systems Management Level Systems Strategic Level Systems 3. Operational Level Systems 3.1 The Transaction Support System TSS supports managers in the day to day running of the business. It keeps track of basic transactions such as sales figures, lodgements to bank, payments to creditors, payroll etc. The main purpose of the system is to answer questions which arise on a daily basis. Information must be easily obtained and precise. These are fundamental systems that serve the operational level of the organisation. Transaction Support System is a computerised system that executes the daily routine transactions necessary to carry out the day to day tasks of running a business. At the operational level duties, resources and goals are predefined and form the foundation of daily business. Example of which is a bank lending money to customers, the predetermined questions are on the computer if the customer has the capacity to fund the repayments of the loan the transaction support system will give the answer as to whether the loan can be grant or not as the case may be. Typical TPS have five major functional categories, sales marketing, manufacturing production, finance accounting and Human Resource. 3. 2 Knowledge Level Systems Knowledge Work Systems (KWS) supports the organisation employees involved in data processing. The knowledge based system helps integrate new information into the organisation and controls the flow of paper. Knowledge Level Systems are found in workstations throughout the organisation. Normally knowledge workers are people who hold formal university degrees and are often members of professional bodies such as doctors, engineers, lawyers and scientists. Their main role is to primarily create new information and knowledge. KWS, such as scientific or engineering design work stations, promote the creation new knowledge and ensure that new knowledge and technical expertise are properly integrated into the business. 4. Management Level Systems Management Information Systems (MIS) are used to monitor and control decision making and administrative activities. Management level reports provide regular intelligence rather than information on operations. Some management systems centre on less structured decisions from which the information received may not always be clear. These systems often answer the question â€Å"what if† an example of which would be â€Å"what will happen if our sales figures double in the next two months†. Answers to questions often need new data from outside the organisation as well as the readily available data found from the existing operational level system. MIS primarily serve the function of controlling, planning and decision making at management level, depending on transaction processing system for their data. The MIS condense and report on the companys basic operations. This system usually provides managers with weekly, monthly and yearly results. It will provide specified answers to routine questions that have been prepared in advance and have a predefined formula for answering them. For instance, MIS reports might list the amount of coffee used last quarter in a chain of coffee shops, or it can make comparisons between one quarter and another. Management information systems are usually not flexible and they have little diagnostic capabilities, they use simple routine reports such as summaries and comparisons. 4.1 Decision Support Systems DSS also supports management level in the organisation. DSS assist managers make decisions that are exclusive, briskly adjusting, not easy to specify beforehand. They address problems where the procedure for arriving at a solution may not be fully predefined. Even though DSS use internal information from TPS and MIS, they frequently bring in information from external sources, such as product price of competitors or current stock price. By design the Decision Support System have more analytical power that the other systems. Built for the sole purpose with a variety of models to analyse data, or compress large amounts of data into a form where they can then be studied by the decision makers. â€Å"DSS are designed so that users can work with them directly; these systems explicitly include user-friendly software. DSS are interactive; the user can change assumptions, ask new questions, and include new data† (Laudon Laudon. 2001) 4.2 Strategic Level Systems Executive Support System (ESS) assists senior managers attempt to address strategic issues and long term goals within the internal and external environments. The main concern is matching changes in the external environment to organisational capabilities. Information systems also supply major business functions as in sales, marketing, manufacturing and finance, accounting and human resource. A classic system will have each of the information systems designed to give the information required from each of the various departments. The sales function has a sales system on the operational level to record daily sales figures and to process customers orders. A management level system can track monthly sales, can send reports and calculate if there is an increase or decrease in sales. The system can complete sales forecasts for specific periods of time depending on the strategic structure the organisation requires. The ESS serves to address non routine decisions requiring evaluation, judgement and insight as there is no agreed procedure to find a solution. The system creates a sweeping computing and communications environment rather than supplying any fixed application or specific capabilities. The design is such; that the system incorporates data about external events like new tax laws or competitors, but they also illustrate information from the MIS and DIS. The system filters, compresses and track significant data, highlighting the reduction of time and effort in finding information of value to the executives. Within the Executive Support System there is the most advanced graphics software with the ability to deliver graphs and data from many sources without delay. 5. Integration of Information Systems The Transaction Processing Systems plays a key role in turning raw data into information it also provides data to the other systems. The ESS system relies on data from the lower level systems. Data is exchanged between the different functional areas. To aid the exchange of information many organisations are now building enterprise systems, also known as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems. Enterprise software models mechanise many of the business processes, such as filling an order, or planning a shipment, with the objective of integrating information across the organisation and getting rid of complex, highly priced connections between computer systems in various areas of the business. The flawless stream of information which was previously uneven throughout the organisation can now be sent throughout the various departments seamlessly. The system will collect data from a range of sources within the business process and accumulate them in a single comprehensive data repository where it can be retrieved by other departments of the business. For the managers it means that information is attained in a precise and timely manner. Enterprise systems can improve organisational effectiveness and efficiency, help the managers in the decision making process the difficulties are that the system is extremely complex and difficult to construct. Organisations will need to restructure their business practices to improve how information flows throughout the organisation. In reviewing their practices employees need to be trained to use the system and take on new responsibilities. Enterprise systems require intricate pieces of software and large investments of time, money, and expertise. 5.1 Industrial Networks Some companies are extending their enterprise systems beyond their internal enviroment to share information and synchronise their business practices and proccesses with other other businesses withing their industry. Industrial Networks can also be known as Extended Enterprises, connect together the enterprise systems of businesses within an entire industry. â€Å"For instance, Proctor and Gamble (PG), the worlds largest consumer goods company, have been developing and integrated industry -wide system that coordinatesthe grocery store point-of-sale systems with grocery store warehouses, shippers, its own manufacturing facilities, and its suppliers of raw materials. The single industry-spanning system effectively allows PG to moniter the movement of all its products from raw materials to customer purchase† (Laudon Laudon. 2001)[4] 6. Discussion Depending on the type of business the organisation may have several different types of Information Systems. For Example: An Accounts firm whose main activity is the collation of figures, with a large volume of clients would have various different departments working off a mainframe. Each department within the organisation will have various different levels of access to the centralised computer system. The Human Resource department will have access to the files of the employees working for the company but would not have access to the clients business records. The accountants working for the firm have access to the clients files but do not have access to the files of the employees. Because there are different interests in a firm no single system can give all the information an organisation requires. Information Systems can be made to provide different organisational interests. The use of these systems can provide an organisation with a strategic competitive advantage although unless a business can keep up with technological advances competitors may in fact remove the advantage an organisation has worked hard to retain. 7. Conclusion This report is titled â€Å"Information Management Systems that support organisations† But in order to appreciate what an Information system and integration can do for an organisation it was worthwhile to investigate the value of information. The advantages to organisations are clear raw data processed through Transaction Report Systems and reports are generated to the specifications required for managers. Knowledge Work Systems which is specialised system creating new information operated by professional employees. Organisations and information influence each other. Information systems must be aligned to provide information that is important to each department in the organisation. In order for the organisation to work efficiently and effectively it must be open to the influence of the Information Systems. Keeping abreast of new technologies will essential for organisations in order to sustain competitive advantage. Interaction between information technologies is complex and is influenced by interceding issues, including the structure of the organisation, operating procedures, culture, politics, internal and external environment, and managers decision making. Unless it is understood that Information system changes life in the organisation, they are unable to successfully design new systems or understand active systems within the organisation. Within the organisation managers will decide what systems will be built, what they will do, and how the implantation of the systems will occur. However the cost involved in building Information Management Systems has to take into consideration but can any organisation afford to be without one.

Product Design Coursework

The aim of this report is to carry out a feasibility study for the development and the manufacture of a novel synthetic fibre to be used to make leisure clothing aimed at the spring and summer market, as asked by our board of directors. I will present a report addressing the project in terms of the Innovation Cycle for product development. This shall cover the definition and evaluation of the products, their form, market and manufacture in terms of the Product Innovation Major Steps, which include: Needs: What needs should the product fill? Ideas: What different products could satisfy these needs? Selection: What ideas are the most promising? Manufacture: How can we make the product in commercial quantities? Innovation Cycle: Product Innovation involves the introduction of a new good or service that is new or substantially improved from previous versions. Innovation is not just about new products, it is a whole new approach to business. The novel synthetic fibre that I will analyse is Nylon with main uses in clothing and footwear. Nylon is a commodity chemical as it is produced in high volumes and yields low profits and so it has a low added value. There is no large scale need for chemists and engineers in commodity chemicals. Needs: What needs should the product fill? The product should fill the customer's needs and to find the needs of the customer, we need to do market research and ask the customers directly what they require through questionnaires or interviews. This is known as primary research as answers are directly answered to the companies needs. Once loads of information has been collected, the customers needs have to be interpreted and taken into consideration. This information can then be used into product specifications and therefore products are produced depending on customer needs. For example, customer needs for the manufacture of Nylon to produce leisure clothing. Essential: o Light weight o Strong o Comfortable Desirable: o Wear resistance o Long lasting o Easy to wash o Easy to iron Useful: o Cheap Specifying a benchmark would be one of the final stages in the needs. The new developed product must meet up to standards with either existing products or an idealised product. If this is not the case then and the benchmark cannot be achieved or surpassed, then it is not worth developing the product. Ideas: What different products could satisfy these needs? The next step in the innovation cycle is to generate ideas. Most of the source of ideas comes from the: > Development team. These people research into the product into great detail and most of the ideas are generated by the developing team. > Customers. Questionnaires and interviews are analysed and a different view of ideas are produced. The interviews and questionnaires can be very important as the customers will be the ones who buy the products at the end and they may also be using similar or existing products. Although questionnaires can sometimes be unreliable if not enough data is collected. > Competitors. Useful data can be obtained if you as a company are selling similar products. > Consultants. These are often not as useful as customers or the development team. > Literature. This will have a large range of views and if researched into properly, books, patents and trade information will produce some excellent ideas. Product development teams generate ideas by brainstorming which is a group exercise and mind mapping which is usually done individually. In developing a product, it requires up to one hundred ideas to find an idea which is really worth going for. To reduce the amount of ideas we have to only the good ideas we have to organise ideas into specific categories which may require more brainstorming. The more ideas are organised, the more we would be able to realise if they are strengths or weaknesses in organisations. Selection: What ideas are the most promising? From all the ideas we have generated, we only take very few good ideas to take forwards for production. To select these few good ideas to take forward we need a Screening Criteria which would select the best ideas. This selection process now would require scientific and engineering judgement. These are: o Safety – Make sure that the product (nylon) would be safe to produce and wear. o Low environmental impact – Make sure that nylon produced clothes and any by-products are not dangerous to the environment o Low cost – Make sure that the method of producing nylon is the cheapest with the highest return for money o Minimum risk – Make the manufacture of nylon economically feasible o Engineering ease – Make the manufacture of nylon technically feasible After the screening process and choosing the best ideas, we now need to do a risk assessment. This will identify and catalogue all risks of producing the product (nylon). Eliminating the risk will be the most important thing and then we can compare quantitatively the terms of the cost and time. Risk management also need to be put in place as to reduce risks or possible risks before proceeding, or accepting the risk and proceeding. This decision is based entirely upon management and the best option will be chosen for the organisation at that time. Manufacture: How can we make the product in commercial quantities? At this stage we are now ready to decide how to produce the product. We have the chemical product we need to manufacture; we have identified customer needs and generated enough ideas to fill this need. When considering the manufacturing process we need to take into account: o Raw materials o Demand for supply o Time taken for product to reach the market o Size of plant o Labour o Operating and capital costs of plant After the manufacturing costs of the product (nylon clothes), we need to consider the packaging. This should be: o Attractive o Waterproof to prevent water ruining the nylon After the packaging, we can finally sell the product. To get the product out onto the market we could: o Advertise in clothes shops o Advertise on TV After advertising, the product would have reached out to a far reaching population.

Explain the Decision Making Process with Example of Your Own

EXPLAIN THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS WITH EXAMPLE OF YOUR OWN. Introduction:- Decision making is an integral part of the most of the top manager's duties. Not even a single day passes without taking decisions particularly in modern organisations. Hence, management and decision ­ making are considered as inseparable. In fact, whatever a manager does, he can do it only by taking some decision. All matters related to planning, organization, staffing, directing and controlling are engrossed in decision making process. That is why it is aptly pointed out that management is essentially a decision-making process.The survival and future success of any enterprise is directly related to the ability to take timely and appropriate decision by the executives. Thus decision-making is said to be the heart of management. Lot of planning exercise is to be initiated by the manager before taking any viable decision. The manager has to carefully plan and decide what to do or what not to do. Wrong decis ions quite often are proved to be either costly or futile. To prevent such losses, decision-making process remains to be the core are in all planned activities of the modern corporations. The selection from among alternatives of a course of action†, according to this definition, picking one course of action among alternatives available is termed as decision-making as per Koontz and Weinrich. In the words of George Terry,†decision-making is the selection of a particular course of action, based on some criteria, from two or more possible alternatives. † We can define this concept also as the process of choosing between various alternatives for achieving a specified goal. Every decision must take into consideration needs and future uncertainties.As per Herbert Simon there are three major steps in the decision making process. Decision making is about choosing from several options or ideas and taking action to generate a particular result. It is usually considered to be a rational and logical thinking process. J>Recognition and understanding of the problem. J>Various alternatives may be developed. J>careful assessment of alternatives available for taking a better decisions. Characteristics J>Decision making is a continuous process. J>The question of decision-making process must always be rational when there are alternatives.J>A decision-making process must always be rational and purposeful. J>Decision making is an intellectual process supported by good reasoning and sound judgment. J>Decision making is all pervasive in the sense that all levels of managers need to take decisions of varied nature. J>Decision-making is always related to future only. Troes of Decisions: Managerial decision may be classified into two categories, the first category includes the typical, routine and unimportant decisions and the second category covers most important, vital and strategic decisions.Apart from decisions are taken at different levels for meeting different p roblems. Oraanisational Vs Personnel Decisions:- As explained by Chester. I. Bernard, the decisions taken by the manager in his official capacity are termed as Organisational decisions. These decisions have a direct bearing on the functioning of the firm. Decision relating to reward systems or transfer of workers can be cited as examples under this category. In contrast to this, some times, decisions may be taken by the manager in his individual capacity and such decisions are termed as personal decisions.They may partly affect the personal life and partly affect the organization. Example,decision to quit the organization comes under this category. Routine Vs Strategic Decision:- Routine decisions involve little risk and uncertainty. Hence, they do not call for extraordinary judgement and thinking. They are mostly related day-to-day conduct of the business and taken repetitively. That's why they are normally taken at lower levels of management. On the other hand strategic decisions are taken by the top level management. Either they are concerned with policy matters or with long-term commitments of the organization.They require thorough understanding, analysis and best judgement, pertaining to location of the plant, type of technology and channel of distribution are the best examples of this type. Policy Vs Operating Decisions:- Policy acts as guidelines for future action. Hence,decisions pertaining to policies are usually taken by the top management. They are considered to be very important since they affect the total organization. While operating decisions are administrative in character, they help in translating policies into action.Decisions relating to a new incentive scheme may be termed as a policy decision. Decisions relating to the methodology of implementation of such incentive scheme are termed as operating decisions. Programmed Vs Non-Programmed decisions:- Programmed decisions usually deals with routine and repetitive problems. For dealing such pro blems, systematic policies, procedures and rules are established. Programmed decisions can be taken with little ease as everything goes according to some set of rules. But Non-Programmed decisions cover mainly unexpected events and challenges.In other words, each problem is unique in nature. For dealing with such special problems, executives usually refer them to the top management, tackling such situations , the manager needs expertise,intuition and creative thinking. Individual Vs Group decisions:- Decisions taken by the individual in his personal capacity are known as individual decisions. Organisations which are small in size can accommodate this type of decision-making process. When organizations grow in size and stature, complex problems do come into picture.Group decisions are considered to be the best under such situations. Group decisions represent the thinking of more than one executive. The various steps involved in the decision-making process are as explained below:- Ste p 1 – Defining the oroblem The first step is to define the real problem, money and efforts are going to be wasted if the problem is not determined correctly. That' s why, accurate diagnosis of the real problem is necessary to find out right solution. We should look at the real causes and for the remedial measures by knowing the inner details of the problem.Knowing only the outer surface of the problem and arriving at decisions may lead to fallacious conclusions. SteP 2- AnalYSing the Problem Once the problem is clearly defined, then, it must be analysed in the light of data pertaining to various factors that surmount the decision. Every situation may have some advantages and limitations. Necessary steps should be laid on locating the limitations and obstacles in achieving the desired result. Necessary care should be exercised in avoiding personalized bias in judging the certain factors. Analysis of crucial factors provides a sound basis for making effective decisions.Step 3- Developing alternatives The analysis of the problem becomes complete once it throws light on several alternative solutions. In fact, the success of decision-making process depends upon the ability of an executive in developing alternative solutions to a given problem. This requires lot of imagination, experience and judgement. Exploring the positive or negative impact of such alternatives forms as a solid base for sound decisions. Step 4- Evaluating alternative Once the alternatives are developed , the next step is to evaluate them in terms of their cause, time , impact and objectives etc.Many a time, either marginal cost or cost-benefit analysis is used to bring out the tangible benefits of each of such alternatives. Each alternative solution may have its own merits and de-merits. They should be compared with other alternatives for the purpose of appraising the real impact. As per Mr. Peter F Drucker, the important criteria for evaluating the consequences of different alternatives are risk,economy, time and limitations. Steo 5- Selecting the best possible solution Selection usually involves choice making. It is the last step in decision-making process.The manager has to select such an alternative course of action which can make the maximum contribution to the goal. It is not always possible to select the best alternative for a given problem. That is why the manger has to rely upon such course of action which can yield good results under a given set of circumstances and limitations. Step 6- Imolementing the decision Once the best alternative is selected, it must be implemented. This step mainly deals with the execution of the decision taken. It involves development of step by step plans, selling the idea to sub-ordinates and seeking co-operation from the needy people.At this stage, the decision is converted into action. The decision must be implemented in the right time and that too in a proper way. Step 7- Evaluation of Decisions The last step in decision-mak ing process is evaluation. The actual results of the decision should be compared with the expected results in order to locate the reasons for deviations. This review is a continuous process and it generates information for necessary feedback for further improving the decision-making process in future. Rationality in decision-making Rationality refers to objective and intelligent action.A decision is said to be rational if appropriate means are chosen to accomplish desired objectives. It implies that decision-maker tries to maximize the values in a given situation by choosing the most suitable course of action. A good decision depends on the makers being consciously aware of the factors that set the stage for the decision. Obtaining complete rationality is not always possible. That is the reason why people prefer to take satisfactory decisions instead of ideal or optimum decisions. Managers are not always confronted by the problem of rationality in decision-making.In practice, they c onfine themselves to few important alternatives which have limited risks combined with favourable consequences. Limits of Rational Decision making Managers are not always rational in their decision-making. They cannot always abide by the demands of rationality in decision-making process. There are some limitations to that and of which are as explained below. Since decisions are related to future, Managers cannot foresee all the consequences accurately. Moreover, lack of complete knowledge about the problem also makes it impossible to choose a good decision.Due to time and cost constraints, all complex variables that have a bearing on decision cannot be examined fully. Hence, the decision maker is forced to strike a balance between complete rationality and hard realities on the ground. The impact of all the variables cannot be ascertained because some of them are intangible. The consequences of various alternatives cannot be anticipated accurately. Hence, decisions taken under uncert ainty cannot guarantee the success of decision-making process. The Human factors like value systems, perceptions, social factors, institution etc. are the main limits on rational decision-making. Managers, being human beings, are greatly influenced by their personal beliefs, attitudes and biases. Because of this, the capacity of a decision-making process varies from individual to individual and from situation to situation. Every manger is vitally concerned with the above limitations in his approach to rational decision-making. He has to collect all the relevant information and try to overcome the above limits on rationality and choose the most rational decision for solving any given problem. Ba†iers of Effective Decision MakingApart from the above limitations, decision-making process remains to be ineffective because of the existence of various barriers in organization structure. These barriers impede the process of identification of problems. It's analysis and the development of the solutions. The following are the important barriers that can block managerial effectiveness in choosing the most suitable decision as per Elbing. The tendency of a human-being to evaluate a given problem with pre-conceived notions, act as a stumbling block in understanding the real situation.Though it's dangerous, managers feel safer if they do not change what is familiar. Eventually, the ineffective decision of a familiar way becomes accepted rather than considering new and innovative means. Many managers fail to demarcate the symptoms from the main problem. Many mangers have a tendency to respond to the problem instantaneously without proper infonmation and thinking. If they gather more infonnation, they become rather than what is unique in new problem. The above problems are mainly responsible for either indecision or for half decision in the modern organizations.Knowledge of the above problems will surely help the managers in arriving at pragmatic decisions. The followin g suggestions can be offered to overcome the above barriers so as to make the managers more effective in decision-making process. Avoid premature evaluation. Initiate impartial probing by avoiding personal biases on the outcome. Develop a sound system that can supply adequate information for making decisions. Encourage group leaders to respond to a given situation and compare the pros and cons of the solutions offered by the two groups for making an effective decision.Encourage innovative thinking among the sub-ordinates so as to identify the crux of the problem without waste of time and money. When decisions of critical and pivotal in nature are to be taken, encourage group thinking. For this, the problem is to be presented to the sub-ordinates first and they are asked to develop as many solutions as possible in a free environment. Techniques of Decision -making Brainstorming:- Brainstorming is the oldest and widely followed technique for encouraging creative thinking. It was origi nally developed by A. F. Osbom. It involves the use of a group.This is an approach to improve problem discovery and solving by encouraging sub-ordinates to give their ideas and solutions in a free environment, they will generate creative ideas. Continuous interaction through free discussions may result in spontaneous and creative thinking. The larger the number of solutions , the fairer are the chances in locating an acceptable solution. The research proves that on hour brainstorming system is likely to generate 50 – 150 ideas. It is interesting to note that while most of them are proved to be impracticable, at least, some of them merit serious consideration.This group process is not without limitations. It continues lot of time and therefore,is an expensive exercise. Secondly,it emphasises only quantity of solutions which more often than not proved to be superficial. By overcoming the above limitations, a modern manager can use this an an effective tool. Some of the claimed advantages of the brainstorming technique include:-  » It reduces dependence on a single authority figure.  » It encourages the open sharing of ideas.  » It stimulates participation among group members. It provides individual safety in a competitive group.  » It maximizes output for a short period of time.  » It ensure a non evaluative climate.  » It tends to be enjoyable and stimulating. Synetics- When compared to Brainstorming, synectics is a new concept developed by William J. J. Gorden. The terms ‘Synectics' is derived from a Greek word which refers to â€Å"Fitting together of diverse elements†. It starts on the premise that this concept encourages novel thinking for the development of alternatives through putting together different ideas which are distinct from each other.A given problem is presented to a group of people with different backgrounds and varied experience. It is the responsibility of the group leader to present the problem and lead the di scussions in order to stimulate creative solutions. This approach ensures on the spot evaluation of members suggestions. The leader who is a technical expert is always assisting the group in evaluating the feasibility of their ideas. But experience shows that synectics has been less widely used than â€Å"Brainstorming†. When the problem is real tough and challenging, this approach is used for effective decision-making.Like Brainstorming it also suffers from the same range of limitations. The synectic techniwue includes the following steps:- Problem statement and background information stage:- The group leader describes the general area of discussion but avoids identifying the specific problem . Creative thinking on the problem is encouraged. The leader presents background information on the problem and the goals associated with the idea solutions. Good wishing stage:- Group members are encouraged to wish for anything that comes to mind that could address the problem.As in br ainstorming, in this â€Å"freewheeling stage† people are encouraged to generate wild ideas and to hitchhike. Exploring ideas and not evaluating them are of utmost importance at this stages. Excursion stage:- Paricipants are asked to forget about the specific problem. They are asked to generate ideas about a somewhat unrelated are that eventually might be related to the problem at hand. Forced-fit stage. Participants take ideas from the excursion stage and force them to fit the initial problem. Although this often appears quite unusual and obtuse, it is intended to encourage creativity.In fact,evidence suggests that many great thinkers develop ideas from such experimental thinking. Intemized response stage:- The group picks one of the ideas generated during the forced fit stage and pursues it further. The idea is dissected on only its positive aspects are identified. After all the positive aspects have been explored,the idea's limitations are addressed. This focus on the posi tive is intended to encourage productivity and creativity. The outcome of the synectic process is a single unique plan or decision that has undergone considerable evaluation.The process tends to produce innovative ideas. Synectic approach can be quite useful for creative planning and decision making. Its cost is high. Furthermore, it produces only one potential solution to a problem. If that solution turns out to be unusable,the problem remains, and the process has failed. The Nominal Group: The nominal group consists of people knowledgeable on the issue to be decided who are in the same physical location and who are aware of each other but who do not directly interact while they are working together.The specific techniques for using the nominal group in decision-making vary with the situation, but usually the following steps are involved. l> The manger brings the group together and outlines the problem. l>Each member of the group generates a number of ideas in writing. l>Each membe r then presents a single idea at a time to the entire group. The ideas are written on a blackboard or on large pieces of paper, and discussion of them is limited to clarification. When no further ideas merge, or when the manager feels the process has gone far enough, each member votes on the ideas, again in writing.The final decision is summed outcome of the individual votes, but the manager is free to accept or reject it. Ooerations Research:- The Origin and development of operations research is attributed to military operations and applications in 2†³Ã¢â‚¬  world war. The war put tremendous pressure on the use of available scarce resources for various strategic and tactical operations. The success of operations research in developing options of effective and efficient nature was instrumental in making this approach rather dependable in decision making process.Now-a-days, greater emphasis has been laid on the use of mathematical models to reflect different options and constra ints in a situation and their effect on a selected goal. This quantitative approach to decision-making is usually referred as â€Å"Operations Research†. Of late, it has become an invaluable tool in the kit of a decision-maker. Operations Research employs optimizing models like Linear Programming, Project Management,Inventory Control, Decision Theory and Waiting Line Theory.Operations Research is the systematic method of studying the basic structure, functions and relationships of an organization as an open system. It always adopts a systems approach to management in getting things done. It is constantly interested in developing optimal solution with limited resources in a given situation. It covers six steps in its approach to problem solving. They are: a. Identification of a problem. b. Construction of a mathematical model to investigate the problem. c. Developing a good solution. d. Testing of the model in the light, the data available. e.Identifying and setting up of cont rol points. f. Implementation of the option as a solution to a critical problem, putting a solution to work. In essence, Operations Research attempts to develop the best solution that will contribute to organizational goals. Limitations of Operation Research:- Operations Research technique is not †¢ panacea to all the problems of modern management. In other words, it is not the end. Since Operations Research does not take intangible aspects into consideration, subjective judgement becomes difficult under this model.As the Operations Research technique directly depends upon the use of mathematical and statistical tools,it is increasingly becoming complex and costly exercise. Since decision making is a human process,It cannot be predicted properly. At the same time, the impact of such factors cannot be measurable. Delphi Technique:- It is a technique normally used for forecasting future events. It is a group decision making technique. Under this method, independent opinions are s ought from the members repeatedly so as to develop a best solution to a given problem.The success of Delphi technique depends upon a simple technique of understanding the problem from the other man's perspective. This ensures success. Though it is a useful technique, since it involves time and cost,it can not be tried in all situations. At the operations level hundreds of de(isions are made in order to achieve local outcomes that contribute to the achievement of a company's overall strategic goal. However, all these decisions are interrelated and must be coordinated for the purpose of attaining the overall company goals. Many decisions-making situations occur under conditions of uncertainty.For example, the demand for a product may not be 100 units next week but may vary between 0 and 200 units, depending on the state of the market, which is uncertain. Decision analysis is a set of quantitative decision-making techniques to aid the decision maker in dealing with a decision situation in which there is uncertainty. However, the usefulness of decision analysis for decision making is also a beneficial topic to study because it reflects a structured, systematic approach to decision making that many decision makers follow intuitively without ever consciously thinking about it.Decision analysis represents not only a collection of decision-making techniques but also an analysis of logic underlying decision making. The general process of the Delphi technique follows: A panel of people who are knowledgeable about a particular problem is selected. The members of the group never actually meet. The panel can have members both inside and outside the organization, and the individual members may or may not know who the other members are. A questionnaire about the problem to be solved is sent to each members of the panel. Each person is asked to make anonymous suggestions.These suggestions are pooled, and a feedback report is developed. The feedback report and a more advanced, second stage questionnaire are sent back to the panel members. Each panel member independently evaluates the feedback report, votes on the priority of the ideas contained in it, and generates new ideas based on it. The process is repeated until a consensus is reached or until the manager feels that sufficient information has been received to make a decision. A final summary feedback report is developed and set back to the group members. A major advantage of the Delphi approach is its anonymity.In groups that interact face-to-face, one person may dominate, or everyone may watch the manager for clues to what is wanted. Further is interacting groups and individual may take a stand and not want to back down for fear of losing face. Frequently experts are more concerned with defending their position than with reaching a good decision. Electronic meetings: The most recent approach to group decision making blends the nominal group technique with sophisticated computer technology. It's cal led the electronic meeting. The major advantages of electronic meetings are anonymity, honestly and speed.Participants can anonymously type any message they want and it flashes on the screen for all to see at the push of a participant's board key. It also allows people to be brutally honest without penalty. And it's fast because chitchat is eliminated, discussions don't digress and many participants can â€Å"talk† at once without stepping on one another's toes. Experts claim that electronic meetings are as much as fifty five percent faster than traditional face to face meetings. Phelps Dodge Mining for instance, used the approach to cut its annual planning meeting from several days down to twelve hours.Yet there are drawbacks to this technique. Those who can type fast can outshine those who are verbally eloquent but lousy typists, those with the best ideas don't get credit for them, and the process lacks the information richness of face to face-to-face oral communication. Bu t although this technology is currently in its infancy, the future of group decision making is very likely to include extensive use of electronic meetings. Decision making without probabilities:- A decision making situation includes several components, the decision themselves and events that may occur in the future, known as states of nature.Future states of nature may be high or low demand for a product or good or bad economic conditions. At the time a decision is made, the decision maker is uncertain which state of nature will occur in the future and has no control over these states of nature. When the probabilities can be assigned to the occurrence of states of nature in the future, the situation is referred to as â€Å"decision making under risk†. When probabilities cannot be assigned to the occurrence of future events, the situation is called â€Å"decision making under uncertainty†.Each decision will result in an outcome or payoff, for each state of nature that w ill occur in the future. Payoffs are typically expressed in terms of profit, revenues, or cost. For example, if decision 1 is to expand a production facility and state of nature a is good economic conditions, payoff la could b e $100,000 in profit. Once the decision situation has been organized into a payoff table, several criteria are available to reflect how the decision maker arrives at a decision, including maximax, maximin, minimax regret, Hurwicz, and equal likelyhood.These criteria reflect different degrees of decision-maker conservatism or liberalism. On occasion they result in the same decision; however, they often yield different results. Different decision criteria often result in a mix of decisions. The criteria used and the resulting decisions depend on the decision maker. For example, the extremely optimistic decision maker might disregard the preceding results and make the decision to maintain the status quo, because the maximax criterion reflects his or her personal decision-making philosophy.

Artifacts in Computer Science - 840 Words

Computers are what run society today, everywhere we look we see devices that are run off of computers and microcomputers such as phones, computers, tablets, and even vehicles. It is now the way the world communicates with each other, because of computers it is a much smaller world in which we live. Computers have been around for such a short period of time, yet they seem to be advancing faster than anything else; this is because there is an infinite number of ways computers can be implemented to help individuals. Thirty years after the first computer was developed, computers had already been altered to read and save information on magnetic tapes that ran through the computer. The picture below was taken at East Carolina University (ECU) in the mid 1970’s of a man changing tapes in a tape computer (Computer Data Tapes). 40 years after this picture was taken, this form of computers is almost unrecognizable by society today, due to dramatic advancements in computer technology. Wh en the first programmable mainframe computer was built in 1946, the technology was utilized to help people with mathematical calculations, problem solving, and could even run small simple simulations while only taking up 1,000 square feet (Bestofmedia). Prior to the 1950’s, vacuum tubes had been used in all computers to indicate on or off for processing. In the early 1950’s transistors which used less energy, produced less heat, and were more reliable swept the computer field, making vacuum tubesShow MoreRelatedControversial Issues in Archaelogy1011 Words   |  4 Pagesarchaeologist, and his goal is to collect artifacts and preserve them in museums. While the field of archaeology is exciting, and the idea of partaking in perilous adventures may seem alluring, the archaeologist was depicted in an incorrect manner. An archaeologist is someone who studies human history through the excavation of sites and the examination of artifacts. 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